Elephant communication | Actual exam reading pdf | Past exam ielts reading pdf | 25 January ielts reading pdf for free | 21 January 2025 ielts reading pdf for free

 

READING PASSAGE 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 28-40 which are based on Reading

Passage 3 below.

Elephant communication

A

postdoctoral fellow at Stanford University, O’Connell-Rodwell has come to Namibia’s

premiere wildlife sanctuary to explore the mysterious and complex world of elephant

communication. She and her colleagues are part of a scientific revolution that began

nearly two decades ago with the stunning revelation that elephants communicate over

long distances using low-frequency sounds, also called infrasounds, that are too deep to

be heard by most humans.

B

s might be expected, the African elephant’s ability to sense seismic sound may begin in

the ears. The hammer bone of the elephant’s inner ear is proportionally very large for a

mammal, buy typical for animals that use vibrational signals. It may, therefore, be a sign

that elephants can communicate with seismic sounds. Also, the elephant and its relative

the manatee are unique among mammals in having reverted to a reptilian-like cochlear

structure in the inner ear. The cochlea of reptiles facilitates a keen sensitivity to

vibrations and may do the same in elephants.

C

But other aspects of elephant anatomy also support that ability. First, their enormous

bodies, which allow them to generate low-frequency sounds almost as powerful as those

of a jet takeoff, provide ideal frames for receiving ground vibrations and conducting

them to the inner ear. Second, the elephant’s toe bones rest on a fatty pad that might

help focus vibrations from the ground into the bone. Finally, the elephant’s enormous

brain lies in the cranial cavity behind the eyes in line with the auditory canal. The front

of the skull is riddled with sinus cavities that may function as resonating chambers for

vibrations from the ground.

D

ow the elephants sense these vibrations is still unknown, but O’Connell-Rodwell who

just earned a graduate degree in entomology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa,

suspects the pachyderms are “listening” with their trunks and feet. The trunk may be the

most versatile appendage in nature. Its uses include drinking, bathing, smelling, feeding

and scratching. Both trunk and feet contain two kinds of pressure-sensitive nerve

endings – one that detects infrasonic vibrations and another that responds to vibrations

with slightly higher frequencies. For O’Connell-Rodwell, the future of the research is

boundless and unpredictable: “Our work is really at the interface of geophysics,

neurophysiology and ecology,” she says. “We’re asking questions that no one has really

dealt with before.”

E

Scientists have long known that seismic communication is common in small animals,

including spiders, scorpions, insects and a number of vertebrate species such as whitelipped

frogs, blind mole rats, kangaroo rats and golden moles. They also have found

evidence of seismic sensitivity in elephant seals – 2-ton marine mammals that are not

related to elephants. But O’Connell-Rodwell was the first to suggest that a large land

animal also in sending and receiving seismic messages. O’Connell-Rodwell noticed

something about the freezing behavior of Etosha’s six-ton bulls that reminded her of the

tiny insects back in her lab. “I did my masters thesis on seismic communication in

planthoppers,” she says. “I’d put a male planthopper on a stem and playback a female

call, and the male would do the same thing the elephants were doing: He would freeze,

then press down on his legs, go forward a little bit, then freeze again. It was just so

fascinating to me, and it’s what got me to think, maybe there’s something else going on

other than acoustic communication.”

F

Scientists have determined that an elephant’s ability to communicate over long

distances is essential for its survival, particularly in a place like Etosha, where more than

2,400 savanna elephants range over an area larger than New Jersey. The difficulty of

finding a mate in this vast wilderness is compounded by elephant reproductive biology.

Females breed only when in estrus – a period of sexual arousal that occurs every two

years and lasts just a few days. “Females in estrus make these very low, long calls that

bulls home in on, because it’s such a rare event,” O’Connell-Rodwell says. These

powerful estrus calls carry more than two miles in the air and maybe accompanied by

long-distance seismic signals, she adds. Breeding herds also use low-frequency

vocalizations to warn of predators. Adult bulls and cows have no enemies, except for

humans, but young elephants are susceptible to attacks by lions and hyenas. When a

predator appears, older members of the herd emit intense warning calls that prompt the

rest of the herd to clump together for protection, then flee. In 1994, O’Connell-Rodwell

recorded the dramatic cries of a breeding herd threatened by lions at Mushara. “The

elephants got really scared, and the matriarch made these very powerful warning calls,

and then the herd took off screaming and trumpeting,” she recalls. “Since then, every

time we’ve played that particular call at the water hole, we get the same response – the

elephants take off.”

G

Reacting to a warning call played in the air is one thing, but could the elephants detect

calls transmitted only through the ground? To find out, the research team in 2002

devised an experiment using electronic equipment that allowed them to send signals

through the ground at Mushara. The results of our 2002 study showed us that elephants

do indeed detect warning calls played through the ground,” O’Connell-Rodwell

observes. “We expected them to clump up into tight groups and leave the area, and

that’s in fact what they did. But since we only played back one type of call, we couldn’t

really say whether they were interpreting it correctly. Maybe they thought it was a

vehicle or something strange instead of a predator warning.”

H

An experiment last year was designed to solve that problem by using three different

recordings – the 1994 warning call from Mushara, an anti-predator call recorded by

scientist Joyce Poole in Kenya and an artificial warble tone. Although still analyzing data

from this experiment, O’Connell-Rodwell is able to make a few preliminary

observations: “The data I’ve seen so far suggest that the elephants were responding as I

had expected. When the ’94 warning call was played back, they tended to clump together

and leave the water hole sooner. But what’s really interesting is that the unfamiliar antipredator

call from Kenya also caused them to clump up, get nervous and aggressively

rumble – but they didn’t necessarily leave. I didn’t think it was going to be that clear

cut.”

 

Questions 14-17

Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage

Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the Reading Passage for each

answer.

Write your answers in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet.

Questions 18-24

Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage.

Using NO MORE THREE WORDS OR A NUMBER from the Reading Passage for

each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 18-24 on your answer sheet.

How the elephants sense these sound vibrations is still unknown, but O’Connell-

Rodwell, a fresh graduate in entomology at the University of Hawaii, proposes that the elephants are “listening” with their 18………………….., by two kinds of nerve endings – that responds to vibrations with both 19………………….. frequency and slightly higher frequencies. O’Connell-Rodwell work is at the combination of geophysics, neurophysiology and 20…………………….,” and it also was the first to indicate that a large land animal also is sending and receiving 21……………………., O’Connell-Rodwell noticed the freezing behavior by putting a male planthopper communicative approach other than 22……………………….” Scientists have determined that an elephant’s ability to communicate over long distances is essential, especially, when elephant herds are finding a 23…………………….., or are warning of predators. Finally, the results of our 2002 study showed us that elephants can detect warning calls played through the 24……………………..”

 

Questions 25-26

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

Write your answers in boxes 25-26 on your answer sheet.

25 According to the passage, it is determined that an elephant need to communicate

over long distances for its survival

A When a threatening predator appears.

B When young elephants meet humans.

C When older members of the herd want to flee from the group.

D When a male elephant is in estrus.

26 What is the author’s attitude toward the experiment by using three different

recordings in the paragraph:

A the outcome is definitely out of the original expectation

B the data cannot be very clearly obtained

C the result can be somewhat undecided or inaccurate

D the result can be unfamiliar to the public

Mammoth kill 2 | Actual exam reading pdf | Past exam ielts reading pdf | 25 January ielts reading pdf for free | 21 January 2025 ielts reading pdf for free

 

READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading

Passage 2 below.

Mammoth kill 2

Mammoth is any species of the extinct genus Mammuthus, proboscideans commonly

equipped with long, curved tusks and, in northern species, a covering of long hair.

They lived from the Pliocene epoch from around 5 million years ago, into the Holocene

at about 4,500 years ago and were members of the family Elephantidae, which

contains, along with mammoths, the two genera of modern elephants and their

ancestors.

A

Like their modern relatives, mammoths were quite large. The largest known species

reached heights in the region of 4 m at the shoulder and weighs up to 8 tonnes, while

exceptionally large males may have exceeded 12 tonnes. However, most species of

mammoth were only about as large as a modern Asian elephant. Both sexes bore tusks.

A first, small set appeared at about the age of six months and these were replaced at

about 18 months by the permanent set. Growth of the permanent set was at a rate of

about 1 to 6 inches per year. Based on studies of their close relatives, the modern

elephants, mammoths probably had a gestation period of 22 months, resulting in a

single calf being born. Their social structure was probably the same as that of African

and Asian elephants, with females living in herds headed by a matriarch, whilst bulls

lived solitary lives or formed loose groups after sexual maturity.

B

MEXICO CITY – Although it’s hard to imagine in this age of urban sprawl and

automobiles, North America once belonged to mammoths, camels, ground sloths as

large as cows, bear-sized beavers and other formidable beasts. Some 11,000 years ago,

however, these large-bodied mammals and others – about 70 species in all –

disappeared. Their demise coincided roughly with the arrival of humans in the New

World and dramatic climatic change – factors that have inspired several theories about

the die-off. Yet despite decades of scientific investigation, the exact cause remains a

mystery. Now new findings offer support to one of these controversial hypotheses: that

human hunting drove this megafaunal menagerie to extinction. The overkill model

emerged in the 1960s when it was put forth by Paul S. Martin of the University of

Arizona. Since then, critics have charged that no evidence exists to support the idea that

the first Americans hunted to the extent necessary to cause these extinctions. But at the

annual meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in Mexico City last October,

paleoecologist John Alroy of the University of California at Santa Barbara argued that,

in fact, hunting- driven extinction is not only plausible, but it was only unavoidable. He

has determined, using a computer simulation, that even a very modest amount of

hunting would have wiped these animals out.

C

Assuming an initial human population of 100 people that grew no more than 2 percent

annually, Alroy determined that if each band of, say, 50 people killed 15 to 20 large

mammals a year, humans could have eliminated the animal populations within 1,000

years. Large mammals, in particular, would have been vulnerable to the pressure

because they have longer gestation periods than smaller mammals and they’re young

require extended care.

D

Not everyone agrees with Alroy’s assessment. For one, the results depend in part on

population-size estimates for the extinct animals – figures that are not necessarily

reliable. But a more specific criticism comes from mammalogist Ross D. E. MacPhee of

the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, who points out that the

relevant archaeological record contains barely a dozen examples of stone points

embedded in mammoth bones (and none, it should be noted, are known from other

megafaunal remains) – hardly what one might expect if hunting drove these animals to

extinction. Furthermore, some of these species had huge ranges – the giant Jefferson’s

ground sloth, for example, lived as far north as the Yukon and as far south as Mexico –

which would have made slaughtering them in numbers sufficient to cause their

extinction rather implausible, he says.

E

Macphee agrees that humans most likely brought about these extinctions (as well as

others around the world that coincided with human arrival), but not directly. Rather he

suggests that people may have introduced hyper lethal disease, perhaps through their

dogs or hitchhiking vermin, which then spread wildly among the immunologically naive

species of the New World. As in the overkill model, populations of large mammals would

have a harder time recovering. Repeated outbreaks of a hyper disease could thus quickly

drive them to the point of no return. So far MacPhee does not have empirical evidence

for the hyper disease hypotheses, and it won’t be easy to come by hyper lethal disease

would kill far too quickly to leave its signature on the bones themselves. But he hopes

that analyses of tissue and DNA from the last mammoths to perish will eventually reveal

murderous microbes.

F The third explanation for what brought on this North American extinction does not

involve human beings. Instead, its proponents blame the loss on the water. The

Pleistocene epoch witnessed considerable climatic instability, explains palaeontologist

Russell W. Graham of the Denver Museum of Nature and Science. As a result, certain

habitats disappeared, and species that had once formed communities split apart. For

some animals, this change brought opportunity. For much of the megafauna, however,

the increasingly homogeneous environment left them with shrinking geographical

ranges – a death sentence for large animals, which need large ranges. Although these

creatures managed to maintain viable populations through most of the Pleistocene, the

final major fluctuation – the so-called Younger Dryas event – pushed them over the

edge, Graham says. For his part, Alroy is convinced that human hunters demolished the

titans of the Ice Age. The overkill model explains everything the disease and climate

scenarios explain, he asserts, and makes accurate predictions about which species would

eventually go extinct. “Personally, I’m a vegetarian,” he remarks, “and I find all of this

kind of gross – but believable.”

Questions 1-7

Summary

Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage

Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the Reading Passage for each

answer.

Write your answers in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.

The reason why dad big size mammals become extinct 11,000 years ago is under hot

debate. The first explanation is that 1……………………….. of human-made it happen. This

so-called 2………………………. began from the 1960s suggested by an expert, who however

received criticism of lack of further information. Another assumption promoted by

MacPhee is that deadly 3…………………….. from human causes their demises. However,

his hypothesis required more 4…………………….. to testify its validity. Graham proposed a

third hypothesis that 5…………………….. in Pleistocene epoch drove some species

disappear, reduced 6……………………… posed a dangerous signal to these giants,

and 7………………………. finally wiped them out.

 

Question 8-13

Use the information in the passage to match the people (listed A-C) with opinions or

deeds below.

Write the appropriate letters A-C in boxes 21-26 on your answer sheet.

NB You may use any letter more than once

A John Alroy

B Ross D. E. MacPhee

C Russell W. Graham

 

8 Human hunting well explained which species would finally disappear.

9 Further grounded proof needed to explain human’s indirect impact on mammals.

10 Overhunting situation has caused die-out of large mammals.

11 Illness rather than hunting caused extensive extinction.

12 Double raised through the study of several fossil records.

13 Climate shift is the main reason for extinction.

READING PASSAGE 1: Mammoth Kill

Mammoth is any species of the extinct genus Mammuthus, proboscideans commonly equipped with long, curved tusks and, in northern species, a covering of long hair. They lived from the Pliocene epoch from around 5 million years ago into the Holocene at about 4,500 years ago and were members of the family Elephantidae, which contains, along with mammoths, the two genera of modern elephants and their ancestors.

Paragraph A

Like their modern relatives, mammoths were quite large. The largest known species reached heights in the region of 4 m at the shoulder and weighed up to 8 tonnes, while exceptionally large males may have exceeded 12 tonnes. However, most species of mammoth were only about as large as a modern Asian elephant. Both sexes bore tusks. A first, small set appeared at about the age of six months, and these were replaced at about 18 months by the permanent set. Growth of the permanent set was at a rate of about 1 to 6 inches per year. Based on studies of their close relatives, the modern elephants, mammoths probably had a gestation period of 22 months, resulting in a single calf being born. Their social structure was probably the same as that of African and Asian elephants, with females living in herds headed by a matriarch, whilst bulls lived solitary lives or formed loose groups after sexual maturity.

Paragraph B

MEXICO CITY – Although it’s hard to imagine in this age of urban sprawl and automobiles, North America once belonged to mammoths, camels, ground sloths as large as cows, bear-sized beavers, and other formidable beasts. Some 11,000 years ago, however, these large-bodied mammals and others – about 70 species in all – disappeared. Their demise coincided roughly with the arrival of humans in the New World and dramatic climatic change – factors that have inspired several theories about the die-off. Yet despite decades of scientific investigation, the exact cause remains a mystery. Now new findings offer support to one of these controversial hypotheses: that human hunting drove this megafaunal menagerie to extinction. The overkill model emerged in the 1960s when it was put forth by Paul S. Martin of the University of Arizona. Since then, critics have charged that no evidence exists to support the idea that the first Americans hunted to the extent necessary to cause these extinctions. But at the annual meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in Mexico City last October, paleoecologist John Alroy of the University of California at Santa Barbara argued that, in fact, hunting-driven extinction is not only plausible but unavoidable. He has determined, using a computer simulation, that even a very modest amount of hunting would have wiped these animals out.

Paragraph C

Assuming an initial human population of 100 people that grew no more than 2 percent annually, Alroy determined that if each band of, say, 50 people killed 15 to 20 large mammals a year, humans could have eliminated the animal populations within 1,000 years. Large mammals, in particular, would have been vulnerable to the pressure because they have longer gestation periods than smaller mammals and their young require extended care.

Paragraph D

Not everyone agrees with Alroy’s assessment. For one, the results depend in part on population-size estimates for the extinct animals – figures that are not necessarily reliable. But a more specific criticism comes from mammalogist Ross D. E. MacPhee of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, who points out that the relevant archaeological record contains barely a dozen examples of stone points embedded in mammoth bones (and none, it should be noted, are known from other megafaunal remains) – hardly what one might expect if hunting drove these animals to extinction. Furthermore, some of these species had huge ranges – the giant Jefferson’s ground sloth, for example, lived as far north as the Yukon and as far south as Mexico – which would have made slaughtering them in numbers sufficient to cause their extinction rather implausible, he says.

Paragraph E

MacPhee agrees that humans most likely brought about these extinctions (as well as others around the world that coincided with human arrival), but not directly. Rather, he suggests that people may have introduced hyperlethal disease, perhaps through their dogs or hitchhiking vermin, which then spread wildly among the immunologically naïve species of the New World. As in the overkill model, populations of large mammals would have a harder time recovering. Repeated outbreaks of a hyperdisease could thus quickly drive them to the point of no return. So far, MacPhee does not have empirical evidence for the hyperdisease hypothesis, and it won’t be easy to come by – hyperlethal disease would kill far too quickly to leave its signature on the bones themselves. But he hopes that analyses of tissue and DNA from the last mammoths to perish will eventually reveal murderous microbes.

Paragraph F

The third explanation for what brought on this North American extinction does not involve human beings. Instead, its proponents blame the loss on the water. The Pleistocene epoch witnessed considerable climatic instability, explains palaeontologist Russell W. Graham of the Denver Museum of Nature and Science. As a result, certain habitats disappeared, and species that had once formed communities split apart. For some animals, this change brought opportunity. For much of the megafauna, however, the increasingly homogeneous environment left them with shrinking geographical ranges – a death sentence for large animals, which need large ranges. Although these creatures managed to maintain viable populations through most of the Pleistocene, the final major fluctuation – the so-called Younger Dryas event – pushed them over the edge, Graham says. For his part, Alroy is convinced that human hunters demolished the titans of the Ice Age. The overkill model explains everything the disease and climate scenarios explain, he asserts, and makes accurate predictions about which species would eventually go extinct. “Personally, I’m a vegetarian,” he remarks, “and I find all of this kind of gross – but believable.”

---

Answers and Explanations

Questions 1-7 (Summary Completion)

1. Arrival of humans
   Location: Paragraph B
   Explanation: It is stated that the demise of large mammals coincided with the arrival of humans in the New World.

2. Overkill model
   Location: Paragraph B
   Explanation: The term "overkill model" is introduced in Paragraph B as the theory proposed by Paul S. Martin in the 1960s.

3. Deadly disease
   Location: Paragraph E
   Explanation: MacPhee suggests that deadly diseases introduced by humans could have caused the extinctions.

4. Empirical evidence
   Location: Paragraph E
   Explanation: MacPhee acknowledges the lack of empirical evidence to support the hyperdisease hypothesis.

5. Climate change
   Location: Paragraph F
   Explanation: Graham argues that climatic instability during the Pleistocene epoch caused habitat changes, leading to extinction.

6. Geographical ranges
   Location: Paragraph F
   Explanation: Graham mentions that shrinking geographical ranges posed a significant challenge to large mammals.

7. Younger Dryas event
   Location: Paragraph F
   Explanation: Graham highlights the Younger Dryas event as the final major fluctuation that pushed species over the edge.

---

Questions 8-13 (Matching Opinions/Deeds)

8. A (John Alroy)
   Location: Paragraph F
   Explanation: Alroy claims the overkill model can accurately predict which species would eventually go extinct.

9. B (Ross D. E. MacPhee)
   Location: Paragraph E
   Explanation: MacPhee believes more empirical evidence is needed to support the hyperdisease hypothesis.

10. A (John Alroy)
    Location: Paragraph B
    Explanation: Alroy's computer simulations show that even modest hunting could have caused the extinction of large mammals.

11. B (Ross D. E. MacPhee)
    Location: Paragraph E
    Explanation: MacPhee suggests that disease, rather than hunting, caused the extinction of large mammals.

12. B (Ross D. E. MacPhee)
    Location: Paragraph D
    Explanation: MacPhee highlights the lack of fossil evidence, such as stone points in mammoth bones, to support the overkill hypothesis.

13. C (Russell W. Graham)
    Location: Paragraph F
    Explanation: Graham attributes the extinction to climate change during the Pleistocene epoch.

 

The Secrets of Persuasion | Actual exam reading pdf | Past exam ielts reading pdf | 25 January ielts reading pdf for free | 21 January 2025 ielts reading pdf for free

 Passage 3 The Secrets of Persuasion

1

SECTION 3

READING PASSAGE 3

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 28-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

The Secrets of Persuasion

A

Our mother may have told you the secret to getting what you ask for was to say please. The reality is rather more surprising. Adam Dudding talks to a psychologist who has made a life’s work from the science of persuasion. Some scientists peer at things through high-powered microscopes. Others goad rats through mazes, or mix bubbling fluids in glass beakers. Robert Cialdini, for his part, does curious things with towels, and believes that by doing so he is discovering important insights into how society works.

B

Cialdini’s towel experiments (more of them later), are part of his research into how we persuade others to say yes. He wants to know why some people have a knack for bending the will of others, be it a telephone cold-caller talking to you about timeshares, or a parent whose children are compliant even without threats of extreme violence. While he’s anxious not to be seen as the man who’s written the bible for snake-oil salesmen, for decades the Arizona State University social psychology professor has been creating systems for the principles and methods of persuasion, and writing bestsellers about them. Some people seem to be born with the skills; Cialdini’s claim is that by applying a little science, even those of us who aren’t should be able to get our own way more often. “All my life I’ve been an easy mark for the blandishment of salespeople and fundraisers and I’d always wondered why they could get me to buy things I didn’t want and give to causes I hadn’t heard of,” says Cialdini on the phone from London, where his is plugging his latest book.

C

He found that laboratory experiments on the psychology of persuasion were telling only part of the story, so he began to research influence in the real world, enrolling in sales-training programmes: “I learnt how to sell automobiles from a lot, how to sell insurance from an office, how to sell encyclopedias door to door.” He concluded there were six general “principles of influence” and has since put them to the test under slightly more scientific conditions. Most recently, that has meant messing about with towels. Many hotels leave a little card in each bathroom asking guests to reuse towels and thus conserve water and electricity and reduce pollution. Cialdini and his colleagues wanted to test the relative effectiveness of different words on those cards. Would guests be motivated to co-operate simply because it would help save the planet, or were other factors more compelling? To test this, the researchers changed the card’s message from an environmental one to the simple (and truthful) statement that the majority of guests at the hotel had reused their towel at least once. Guests given this message were 26% more likely to reuse their towels than those given the old message. In Cialdini’s book “Yes! 50 Secrets from the Science of Persuasion”, co-written with another social scientist and a business consultant, he explains that guests were responding to the persuasive force of “social proof”, the idea that our decisions are strongly influenced by what we believe other people like us are doing.

D

So much for towels. Cialdini has also learnt a lot from confectionery. Yes! Cites the work of New Jersey behavioural scientist David Strohmetz, who wanted to see how restaurant patrons would respond to a ridiculously small favour from their food server, in the form of an after-dinner chocolate for each diner. The secret, it seems, is in how you give the chocolate. When the chocolates arrived in a heap with the bill, tips went up a miserly 3% compared to when no chocolate was given. But when the chocolates were dropped individually in front of each diner, tips went up 14%. The scientific breakthrough, though, came when the waitress gave each diner one chocolate, headed away from the table then doubled back to give them one more each, as if such generosity had only just occurred to her. Tips went up 23%. This is “reciprocity” in action: we want to return favours done to us, often without bothering to calculate the relative value of what is being received and given.

E

Geeling Ng, operations manager at Auckland’s Soul Bar, says she’s never heard of Kiwi waiting staff using such a cynical trick, not least because New Zealand tipping culture is so different from that of the US: “If you did that in New Zealand, as diners were leaving they’d say ‘can we have some more?” ‘ But she certainly understands the general principle of reciprocity. The way to a diner’s heart is “to give them something they’re not expecting in the way of service. It might be something as small as leaving a mint on their plate, or it might be remembering that last time they were in they wanted their water with no ice and no lemon. “In America it would translate in to an instant tip. In New Zealand it translates into a huge smile and thank you.” And no doubt, return visits.

THE FIVE PRINCIPLES OF PERSUASION

F

Reciprocity: People want to give back to those who have given to them. The trick here is to get in first. That’s why charities put a crummy pen inside a mailout, and why smiling women in supermarkets hand out dollops of free food. Scarcity: People want more of things they can have less of. Advertisers ruthlessly exploit scarcity (“limit four per customer”, “sale must end soon”), and Cialdini suggests parents do too: “Kids want things that are less available, so say ‘this is an unusual opportunity; you can only have this for a certain time’.”

G

Authority: We trust people who know what they’re talking about. So inform people honestly of your credentials before you set out to influence them. “You’d be surprised how many people fail to do that,” says Cialdini. “They feel it’s impolite to talk about their expertise.” In one study, therapists whose patients wouldn’t do their exercises were advised to display their qualification certificates prominently. They did, and experienced an immediate leap in patient compliance.

H

Commitment/consistency: We want to act in a way that is consistent with the commitments we have already made. Exploit this to get a higher sign-up rate when soliciting charitable donations. First ask workmates if they think they will sponsor you on your egg-and-spoon marathon. Later, return with the sponsorship form to those who said yes and remind them of their earlier commitment.

I

Linking: We say yes more often to people we like. Obvious enough, but reasons for “linking” can be weird. In one study, people were sent survey forms and asked to return them to a named researcher. When the researcher gave a fake name resembling that of the subject (eg, Cynthia Johnson is sent a survey by “Cindy Johansen”), surveys were twice as likely to be completed. We favour people who resemble us, even if the resemblance is as minor as the sound of their name.

J

Social proof: We decide what to do by looking around to see what others just like us are doing. Useful for parents, says Cialdini. “Find groups of children who are behaving in a way that you would like your child to, because the child looks to the side, rather than at you.” More perniciously, social proof is the force underpinning the competitive materialism of “keeping up with the Joneses”

Questions 28-31

Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.

28 The main purpose of Cialdini’s research of writing is to

A explain the reason way researcher should investigate in person

B explore the secret that why some people become the famous sales person

C help people to sale products

D prove maybe there is a science in the psychology of persuasion

29 Which of statement is CORRECT according to Cialdini’s research methodology

A he checked data in a lot of latest books

B he conducted this experiment in laboratory

C he interviewed and contract with many sales people

D he made lot phone calls collecting what he wants to know

30 Which of the following is CORRECT according to towel experiment in the passage?

A Different hotel guests act in a different response

B Most guests act by idea of environment preservation

C more customers tend to cooperate as the message requires than simply act environmentally

D people tend to follow the hotel’s original message more

31 Which of the following is CORRECT according to the candy shop experiment in the passage?

A Presenting way affects diner’s tips

B Regular customer gives tips more than irregulars

C People give tips only when offered chocolate

D Chocolate with bill got higher tips

Questions 32-35

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3?

In boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is true

FALSE if the statement is false

NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage

32 Robert Cialdini experienced “principles of influence” himself in realistic life.

33 Principle of persuasion has different types in different countries.

34 In New Zealand, people tend to give tips to attendants after being served a chocolate.

35 Elder generation of New Zealand is easily attracted by extra service of restaurants by principle of reciprocity.

Questions 36-40

Use the information in the passage to match the category (listed A-E) with correct description below.

Write the appropriate letters A-E in boxes 36-40 on answer sheet.

NB You may use any letter more than once.

A Reciprocity of scarcity

B Authority

C previous comment

D Linking

36 Some expert may reveal qualification in front of clients.

37 Parents tend to say something that other kids are doing the same.

38 Advertisers ruthlessly exploit the limitation of chances.

39 Use a familiar name in a survey.

40 Ask colleagues to offer a helping hand

Reasons for Answers with Locations in the Passage

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28. D

• Location: Paragraph B
• Cialdini’s main purpose is to study the science of persuasion and understand why some people are better at influencing others. The text mentions, "Cialdini’s claim is that by applying a little science, even those of us who aren’t should be able to get our own way more often." This aligns with option D: proving there is science in the psychology of persuasion.

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29. C

• Location: Paragraph C
• The passage states, "He began to research influence in the real world, enrolling in sales-training programmes: ‘I learned how to sell automobiles from a lot, how to sell insurance from an office, how to sell encyclopedias door to door.’" This confirms that he engaged directly with salespeople, making C the correct answer.

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30. C

• Location: Paragraph C
• The towel experiment found that people were more likely to reuse towels when told that the majority of guests had done so. The passage explains, "Guests given this message were 26% more likely to reuse their towels than those given the old message." This shows that people responded more positively to the revised message than the original environmental one, confirming C.

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31. A

• Location: Paragraph D
• The passage describes how diners tipped more depending on how the chocolates were presented, especially when they were given with apparent thoughtfulness. It states, "Tips went up 23%," showing that the presentation significantly affected tipping behavior. Hence, A is correct.

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32. TRUE

• Location: Paragraph C
• Cialdini mentions, "All my life I’ve been an easy mark for the blandishments of salespeople," and he enrolled in sales training to experience these principles in real life. This supports the statement.

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33. NOT GIVEN

• Location: Not directly mentioned in the text.
• The passage discusses reciprocity in the context of New Zealand and the US but does not specify that the principles of persuasion vary between countries.

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34. FALSE

• Location: Paragraph E
• The passage notes, "In New Zealand, it translates into a huge smile and thank you." This indicates that New Zealand diners generally do not tip after being given chocolates, making the statement false.

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35. NOT GIVEN

• Location: Not directly mentioned in the text.
• While the passage discusses reciprocity and the effect of small gestures on diners, it does not mention how the elder generation in New Zealand responds.

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36. B

• Location: Paragraph G
• "Therapists whose patients wouldn’t do their exercises were advised to display their qualification certificates prominently." This demonstrates the principle of authority.

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37. E

• Location: Paragraph J
• The principle of social proof is described as "we decide what to do by looking around to see what others just like us are doing." Parents encouraging children to imitate other kids fit this principle.

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38. A

• Location: Paragraph F
• "Advertisers ruthlessly exploit scarcity (‘limit four per customer’, ‘sale must end soon’)." This aligns with the principle of scarcity.

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39. D

• Location: Paragraph I
• The passage states, "We favor people who resemble us, even if the resemblance is as minor as the sound of their name." Using familiar names in surveys applies the principle of linking.

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40. C

• Location: Paragraph H
• "First ask workmates if they think they will sponsor you... Later, return... and remind them of their earlier commitment." This aligns with the principle of commitment/consistency.

Cosmetics in Ancient Past | Actual exam reading pdf | Past exam ielts reading pdf | 25 January ielts reading pdf for free | 21 January 2025 ielts reading pdf for free

 Passage 2 Cosmetics in Ancient Past

1

SECTION 2

READING PASSAGE 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 15-27 which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.

Cosmetics in Ancient Past

A

Since cosmetics and perfumes are still in wide use today, it is interesting to compare the attitudes, customs and beliefs related to them in ancient times to those of our own day and age. Cosmetics and perfumes have been popular since the dawn of civilization; it is shown by the discovery of a great deal of pertinent archeological material, dating from the third millennium BC. Mosaics, glass perfume flasks, stone vessels, ovens, cooking-pots, clay jars, etc., some inscribed by the hand of the artisan. Evidence also appears in the Bible and other classical writings, where it is written that spices and perfumes were prestigious products known throughout the ancient world and coveted by kings and princes. The written and pictorial descriptions, as well as archaeological findings, all show how important body care and aesthetic appearance were in the lives of the ancient people. The chain of evidence spans many centuries, detailing the usage of cosmetics in various cultures from the earliest period of recorded history.

B

In antiquity, however, at least in the onset, cosmetics served in religious ceremonies and for healing purposes. Cosmetics were also connected with cultic worship and witchcraft: to appease the various gods, fragrant ointments were applied to the statuary images and even to their attendants. From this, in the course of time, developed the custom of personal use, to enhance the beauty of the face and the body, and to conceal defects.

C

Perfumes and fragrant spices were precious commodities in antiquity, very much in demand, and at times even exceeded silver and gold in value. Therefore they were luxury products, used mainly in the temples and in the homes of the noble and wealthy. The Judean kings kept them in treasure houses (2 Kings 20:13). And the Queen of Sheba brought to Solomon “camels laden with spices, gold in great quantity and precious stones.” (1 Kings 10:2, 10). However, within time, the use of cosmetics became the custom of that period. The use of cosmetics became widespread among the lower classes as well as among the wealthy; in the same way they washed the body, so they used to care for the body with substances that softened the skin and anoint it with fragrant oils and ointments.

D

Facial treatment was highly developed and women devoted many hours to it. They used to spread various scented creams on the face and to apply makeup in vivid and contrasting colors. An Egyptian papyrus from the 16th century BC contains detailed recipes to remove blemishes, wrinkles, and other signs of age. Greek and Roman women would cover their faces in the evening with a “beauty mask” to remove blemishes, which consisted mainly of flour mixed with fragrant spices, leaving it on their face all night. The next morning they would wash it off with asses’ milk. The very common creams used by women in the ancient Far East, particularly important in the hot climate and prevalent in that area of the globe, were made up of oils and aromatic scents. Sometimes the oil in these creams was extracted from olives, almonds, gourds, sesame, or from trees and plants; but, for those of limited means, scented animal and fish fats were commonly used.

E

Women in the ancient past commonly put colors around their eyes. Besides beautification, its purpose was also medicinal as covering the sensitive skin of the lids with colored ointments that prevented dryness and eye diseases: the eye-paint repelled the little flies that transmitted eye inflammations. Egyptian women colored the upper eyelid black and the lower one green, and painted the space between the upper lid and the eyebrow gray and blue. The women of Mesopotamia favored yellows and reds. The use of kohl for painting the eyes is mentioned three times in the Bible, always with disapproval by the sages (2 Kings, 9:30; Jeremiah 4:30; Ezekiel 23:40). In contrast, Job named one of his daughters “Keren Happukh”- “horn of eye paint” (Job 42:14)

F

Great importance was attached to the care for hair in ancient times. Long hair was always considered a symbol of beauty, and kings, nobles and dignitaries grew their hair long and kept it well-groomed and cared for. Women devoted much time to the style of the hair; while no cutting, they would apply much care to it by arranging it skillfully in plaits and “building it up” sometimes with the help of wigs. Egyptian women generally wore their hair flowing down to their shoulders or even longer. In Mesopotamia, women cherished long hair as a part of their beauty, and hair flowing down their backs in a thick plait and tied with a ribbon is seen in art. Assyrian women wore their hair shorter, braiding and binding it in a bun at the back. In Ancient Israel, brides would wear their hair long on the wedding day as a sign of their virginity. Ordinary people and slaves, however, usually wore their hair short, mainly for hygienic reasons, since they could not afford to invest in the kind of treatment that long hair required.

G

From the Bible and Egyptian and Assyrian sources, as well as the words of classical authors, it appears that the centers of the trade in aromatic resins and incense were located in the kingdoms of Southern Arabia, and even as far as India, where some of these precious aromatic plants were grown. “Dealers from Sheba and Rammah dealt with you, offering the choicest spices…” (Ezekiel 27:22). The Nabateans functioned as the important middlemen in this trade; Palestine also served as a very important component, as the trade routes crisscrossed the country. It is known that the Egyptian Queen Hatsheput (15th century BC) sent a royal expedition to the Land of Punt (Somalia) in order to bring back myrrh seedlings to plant in her temple. In Assyrian records of tribute and spoils of war, perfumes and resins are mentioned; the text from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC) refers to balls of myrrh as part as part of the tribute brought to the Assyrian king by the Aramaean kings. The trade in spices and perfumes is also mentioned in the Bible as written in Genesis (37:25-26), “Camels carrying gum tragacanth and balm and myrrh”.

Questions 15-21

Reading Passage 2 has 7 paragraphs A-G

Which paragraph contains the following information?

Write your answers in boxes 15-21 on your answer sheet.

15 recipes to conceal facial defects caused by aging

16 perfumes were presented to conquerors in war

17 long hair of girls had special meanings in marriage

18 evidence exists in abundance showing cosmetics use in ancient times

19 protecting eyes from fly-transmitted diseases

20 from witchcraft to beautification

21 more expensive than gold

Questions 22-27

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?

In boxes 22-27 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is true

FALSE if the statement is false

NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage

22 The written record for cosmetics and perfumes dates back to the third millennium BC.

23 Since perfumes and spices were luxury products, their use was exclusive to the noble and the wealthy.

24 In ancient Far East, fish fats were used as cream by woman from poor households.

25 The teachings in the Bible were repeatedly against the use of kohl for painting the eyes.

26 Long hair as a symbol of beauty was worn solely by women of ancient cultures

27 The Egyptian Queen Hatsheput sent a royal expedition to Punt to establish a trade route for myrrh

Reasons and Locations for Answers:

---

Questions 15-21

15. Recipes to conceal facial defects caused by aging
Answer: D
Reason: Paragraph D describes the facial treatments used by women, including recipes to remove blemishes and wrinkles, and their beauty masks.
Location: "An Egyptian papyrus from the 16th century BC contains detailed recipes to remove blemishes, wrinkles, and other signs of age."

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16. Perfumes were presented to conquerors in war
Answer: G
Reason: Paragraph G mentions that perfumes and resins were presented as tribute or spoils of war in Assyrian records.
Location: "...perfumes and resins are mentioned; the text from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC) refers to balls of myrrh as part of the tribute brought to the Assyrian king by the Aramaean kings."

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17. Long hair of girls had special meanings in marriage
Answer: F
Reason: Paragraph F highlights that in Ancient Israel, brides wore their hair long on the wedding day as a sign of virginity.
Location: "In Ancient Israel, brides would wear their hair long on the wedding day as a sign of their virginity."

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18. Evidence exists in abundance showing cosmetics use in ancient times
Answer: A
Reason: Paragraph A discusses the archaeological evidence (e.g., vessels, jars, mosaics) that demonstrates the widespread use of cosmetics in ancient times.
Location: "It is shown by the discovery of a great deal of pertinent archeological material, dating from the third millennium BC."

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19. Protecting eyes from fly-transmitted diseases
Answer: E
Reason: Paragraph E explains that eye-paint was used to protect against eye diseases caused by flies.
Location: "Its purpose was also medicinal...the eye-paint repelled the little flies that transmitted eye inflammations."

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20. From witchcraft to beautification
Answer: B
Reason: Paragraph B states that cosmetics were originally used in religious ceremonies and witchcraft before evolving into tools for beautification.
Location: "Cosmetics were also connected with cultic worship and witchcraft...in the course of time, developed the custom of personal use, to enhance the beauty of the face and the body."

---

21. More expensive than gold
Answer: C
Reason: Paragraph C describes how perfumes and spices were precious commodities and were sometimes more valuable than gold and silver.
Location: "Perfumes and fragrant spices...at times even exceeded silver and gold in value."

---

Questions 22-27

22. The written record for cosmetics and perfumes dates back to the third millennium BC.
Answer: NOT GIVEN
Reason: While archaeological material dates back to the third millennium BC, there is no specific mention of written records from this period.

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23. Since perfumes and spices were luxury products, their use was exclusive to the noble and the wealthy.
Answer: FALSE
Reason: Paragraph C notes that while perfumes were initially used by the wealthy, their use eventually became widespread among the lower classes.
Location: "...the use of cosmetics became widespread among the lower classes as well as among the wealthy."

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24. In ancient Far East, fish fats were used as cream by women from poor households.
Answer: TRUE
Reason: Paragraph D mentions that women of limited means in the Far East used scented animal and fish fats for creams.
Location: "...for those of limited means, scented animal and fish fats were commonly used."

---

25. The teachings in the Bible were repeatedly against the use of kohl for painting the eyes.
Answer: TRUE
Reason: Paragraph E mentions three disapproving references in the Bible about the use of kohl for painting eyes.
Location: "The use of kohl for painting the eyes is mentioned three times in the Bible, always with disapproval by the sages."

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26. Long hair as a symbol of beauty was worn solely by women of ancient cultures.
Answer: FALSE
Reason: Paragraph F describes that both men and women in ancient cultures considered long hair a symbol of beauty.
Location: "Long hair was always considered a symbol of beauty, and kings, nobles and dignitaries grew their hair long."

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27. The Egyptian Queen Hatsheput sent a royal expedition to Punt to establish a trade route for myrrh.
Answer: NOT GIVEN
Reason: Paragraph G mentions Queen Hatsheput sent an expedition to bring myrrh seedlings, but it does not specify establishing a trade route.
Location: "It is known that the Egyptian Queen Hatsheput (15th century BC) sent a royal expedition to the Land of Punt (Somalia) in order to bring back myrrh seedlings."

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The Cacao: a Sweet History | Actual exam reading pdf | Past exam ielts reading pdf | 25 January ielts reading pdf for free | 21 January 2025 ielts reading pdf for free

 Passage 1 The Cacao: a Sweet History

1

SECTION 1

READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-14 which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

The Cacao: a Sweet History

A Chapter 1

Most people today think of chocolate as something sweet to eat or drink that can be easily found in stores around the world. It might surprise you that chocolate was once highly treasured. The tasty secret of the cacao (Kah Kow) tree was discovered 2,000 years ago in the tropical rainforests of the Americas. The story of how chocolate grew from a local Mesoamerican beverage into a global sweet encompasses many cultures and continents.

B Chapter 2

Historians believe the Maya people of Central America first learned to farm cacao plants around two thousand years ago. The Maya took cacao trees from the rainforests and grew them in their gardens. They cooked cacao seeds, the crushed them into a soft paste. They mixed the paste with water and flavorful spices to make an unsweetened chocolate drink. The Maya poured the chocolate drink back and forth between two containers so that the liquid would have a layer of bubbles, or foam.

Cacao and chocolate were an important part of Maya culture. There are often images of cacao plants on Maya buildings and art objects. Ruling families drank chocolate at special ceremonies. And, even poorer members of the society could enjoy the drink once in a while. Historians believe that cacao seeds were also used in marriage ceremonies as a sign of the union between a husband and a wife.

The Aztec culture in current-day Mexico also prized chocolate. But, cacao plants could not grow in the area where the Aztecs lived. So, they traded to get cacao. They even used cacao seeds as a form of money to pay taxes. Chocolate also played a special role in both Maya and Aztec royal and religious events. Priests presented cacao seeds and offerings to the gods and served chocolate drinks during sacred ceremonies. Only the very wealthy in Aztec societies could afford to drink chocolate because cacao was so valuable. The Aztec ruler Montezuma was believed to drink fifty cups of chocolate every day. Some experts believe the word for chocolate came from the Aztec word “xocolatl” which in the Nahuatl language means “bitter water.” Others believe the word “chocolate” was created by combining Mayan and Nahuatl words.

C Chapter 3

The explorer Christopher Columbus brought cacao seeds to Spain after his trip to Central America in 1502. But it was the Spanish explorer Hernando Cortes who understood that chocolate could be a valuable investment. In 1519, Cortes arrived in current-day Mexico. He believed the chocolate drink would become popular with Spaniards. After the Spanish soldiers defeated the Aztec empire, they were able to seize the supplies of cacao and send them home. Spain later began planting cacao in its colonies in the Americans in order to satisfy the large demand for chocolate. The wealthy people of Spain first enjoyed a sweetened version of chocolate drink. Later, the popularity of the drink spread throughout Europe. The English, Dutch and French began to plant cacao trees in their own colonies. Chocolate remained a drink that only wealthy people could afford to drink until the eighteenth century. During the period known as the Industrial Revolution, new technologies helped make chocolate less costly to produce.

D Chapter 4

Farmers grow cacao trees in many countries in Africa, Central and South America. The trees grow in the shady areas of the rainforests near the Earth’s equator. But these trees can be difficult to grow. They require an exact amount of water, warmth, soil and protection. After about five years, cacao trees start producing large fruits called pods, which grow near the trunk of the tree. The seeds inside the pods are harvested to make chocolate. There are several kinds of cacao trees. Most of the world’s chocolate is made from the seed of the forastero tree. But farmers can also grow criollo or trinitario cacao plants. Cacao trees grown on farms are much more easily threatened by diseases and insects than wild trees. Growing cacao is very hard work for farmers. They sell their harvest on a futures market. This means that economic conditions beyond their control can affect the amount of money they will earn. Today, chocolate industry officials, activists, and scientists are working with farmers. They are trying to make sure that cacao can be grown in a way that is fair to the timers and safe for the environment.

E Chapter 5

To become chocolate, cacao seeds go through a long production process in a factory. Workers must sort, clean and cook the seeds. Then they break off the covering of the seeds so that only the inside fruit, or nibs, remain. Workers crush the nibs into a soft substance called chocolate liquor. This gets separated into cocoa solids and a fat called cocoa butter. Chocolate makers have their own special recipes in which they combine chocolate liquor with exact amounts of sugar, milk and cocoa fat. They finely crush this “crumb” mixture in order to make it smooth. The mixture then goes through two more processes before it is shaped into a mold form.

Chocolate making is a big business. The market value of the yearly cacao crop around the world is more than five billion dollars. Chocolate is especially popular in Europe and the United States. For example, in 2005, the United States bought 1.4 billion dollars worth of cocoa products. Each year, Americans eat an average of more than five kilograms of chocolate per person. Specialty shops that sell costly chocolates are also very popular. Many offer chocolate lovers the chance to taste chocolates grown in different areas of the world.

Questions 1-5

Reading passage 1 has 5 chapters.

Which chapter contains the following information?

Write your answers in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet

1 the part of cacao trees used to produce chocolate

2 average chocolate consumption by people in the US per person per year

3 risks faced by fanners in the cacao business

4 where the first sweetened chocolate drink appeared

5 how ancient American civilizations obtained cacao

Question 6-10

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?

In boxes 6-10 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is true

FALSE if the statement is false

NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage

6 use cacao and chocolate in ceremonies was restricted Maya royal families

7 The Spanish explorer Hernando Cortes invested in chocolate and chocolate drinks.

8 The forastero tree produces the best chocolate.

9 some parts in cacao seed are get rid of during chocolate process

10 Chocolate is welcomed more in some countries or continents than other parts around the world.

Questions 11-14

The flow chart below shows the steps in chocolate making.

Complete the flow chart using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each blank

Write your answers in boxes 11-14 on your answer sheet.

Cacao seeds

↓ sorting, cleaning and cooking ridding seeds of their 11 …………………..

Nibs

↓ crushing

12 ……………………….

↓ Add sugar, milk and 13 ………………..

Crumb mixture

↓ Crush finely then come into a shape in a 14 ……………….

chocolate

Questions 1–5: Chapter Location

1. The part of cacao trees used to produce chocolate
   Answer: D
   Reason: Chapter 4 discusses how cacao pods grow on the tree trunks, and the seeds inside the pods are used to make chocolate.
   Location: "After about five years, cacao trees start producing large fruits called pods, which grow near the trunk of the tree. The seeds inside the pods are harvested to make chocolate."

2. Average chocolate consumption by people in the US per person per year
   Answer: E
   Reason: Chapter 5 mentions specific statistics about American chocolate consumption.
   Location: "Each year, Americans eat an average of more than five kilograms of chocolate per person."

3. Risks faced by farmers in the cacao business
   Answer: D
   Reason: Chapter 4 explains how cacao farmers are affected by economic conditions and environmental challenges.
   Location: "Growing cacao is very hard work for farmers. They sell their harvest on a futures market. This means that economic conditions beyond their control can affect the amount of money they will earn."

4. Where the first sweetened chocolate drink appeared
   Answer: C
   Reason: Chapter 3 explains that the Spanish created the first sweetened chocolate drink after discovering cacao in Central America.
   Location: "The wealthy people of Spain first enjoyed a sweetened version of chocolate drink."

5. How ancient American civilizations obtained cacao
   Answer: B
   Reason: Chapter 2 explains how the Aztecs traded for cacao since it did not grow in their region.
   Location: "The Aztec culture in current-day Mexico also prized chocolate. But, cacao plants could not grow in the area where the Aztecs lived. So, they traded to get cacao."

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Questions 6–10: True/False/Not Given

6. Use of cacao and chocolate in ceremonies was restricted to Maya royal families.
   Answer: FALSE
   Reason: The passage states that cacao and chocolate were significant in Maya culture and were not exclusive to royals; even poorer members of society could enjoy the drink occasionally.
   Location: "Cacao and chocolate were an important part of Maya culture... even poorer members of the society could enjoy the drink once in a while."

7. The Spanish explorer Hernando Cortes invested in chocolate and chocolate drinks.
   Answer: NOT GIVEN
   Reason: The passage mentions Cortes recognized the potential value of chocolate but does not specify whether he personally invested in it.
   Location: "But it was the Spanish explorer Hernando Cortes who understood that chocolate could be a valuable investment."

8. The forastero tree produces the best chocolate.
   Answer: NOT GIVEN
   Reason: While the passage states that most chocolate comes from the forastero tree, it does not say whether it produces the best chocolate.
   Location: "Most of the world’s chocolate is made from the seed of the forastero tree."

9. Some parts in cacao seed are removed during the chocolate process.
   Answer: TRUE
   Reason: The passage describes how the covering of cacao seeds is removed during the production process.
   Location: "Then they break off the covering of the seeds so that only the inside fruit, or nibs, remain."

10. Chocolate is welcomed more in some countries or continents than other parts around the world.
    Answer: TRUE
    Reason: The passage notes that chocolate is especially popular in Europe and the United States, implying varying levels of popularity worldwide.
    Location: "Chocolate is especially popular in Europe and the United States."

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Questions 11–14: Flow Chart Completion

11. Covering
    Reason: The passage mentions breaking off the seed covering as part of the process.
    Location: "Then they break off the covering of the seeds."

12. Chocolate liquor
    Reason: The nibs are crushed to produce chocolate liquor.
    Location: "Workers crush the nibs into a soft substance called chocolate liquor."

13. Cocoa fat
    Reason: The recipe includes cocoa fat as one of the ingredients.
    Location: "Chocolate makers have their own special recipes in which they combine chocolate liquor with exact amounts of sugar, milk and cocoa fat."

14. Mold (form)
    Reason: The final step involves shaping the mixture into a mold.
    Location: "The mixture then goes through two more processes before it is shaped into a mold form."