Caral: an ancient South American city | Actual exam ielts reading pdfs |

READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1

on pages 2 and 3.

Caral: an ancient South American city

Huge earth and rock mounds rise out of the desert of the Supe Valley near the coast of Peru in
South America. These immense mounds appear simply to be part of the geographical landscape
in this arid region squeezed between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes mountains. But looks
deceive. These are actually human-made pyramids. Strong evidence indicates they are the
remains of a city known as Caral that flourished nearly 5,000 years ago. If true, it would be the
oldest known urban center in the Americas and among the most ancient in the world.

Research undertaken by Peruvian archaeologist Ruth Shady suggests that the 150-acre complex
of pyramids, plazas and residential buildings was a thriving metropolis when Egypt's great
pyramids were still being built. Though discovered in 1905, for years Caral attracted little
attention, largely because archaeologists believed the structures were fairly recent. But the
monumental scale of the pyramids had long interested Shady, who began excavations at the
site in 1996, about 22 kilometers from the coast and 190 kilometers north of Peru's capital city
of Lima.

Shady and her crew searched for broken remains of the puts and containers that most such
sites contain. Not finding any only made her more excited; it meant Caral could be what
archaeologists term pre-ceramic, that is, existing before the advent in the area of pot-firing
techniques. Shady's team undertook the task of excavating Piramide Mayor, the largest of the
pyramids. After carefully clearing away many hundreds of years' worth of rubble and sand, they
identified staircases, walls covered with remnants of colored plaster, and brickwork. In the
foundations, they found the remains of grass-like reeds woven into bags. The original workers,
she surmised, must have filled these bags with stones from a nearby quarry and laid them atop
one another inside retaining walls, gradually giving rise to the pyramid's immense structure.
Shady had samples of the reeds subjected to radiocarbon dating and found that the reeds were
4,600 years old. This evidence indicated that Caral was, in fact, more than 1,000 years older
than what had previously been thought to be the oldest urban center in the Americas.

What amazed archaeologists was not just the age, but the complexity and scope of Caral.
Piramide Mayor alone covers an area nearly the size of four football fields and is 18 meters tall.
A nine-meter-wide staircase rises from a circular plaza at the foot of the pyramid, passing over
three terraced levels until it reaches the top. Thousands of manual laborers would have been
needed to build such a project, not counting the many architects, craftsmen, and managers.
Shady's team found the remains of a large amphitheater, containing almost 70 musical
instruments made of bird and deer bones. Clearly, music played an important role in Caral's
society. Around the perimeter of Caral are a series of smaller mounds and various buildings.
These indicate a hierarchy of living arrangements: large, well-kept rooms atop pyramids for the
elite, ground-level quarters for craftsmen, and shabbier outlying dwellings for workers.

But why had Caral been built in the first place? Her excavations convinced Shady that Caral
once served as a trade center for the region, which extends from the rainforests of the Amazon
to the high forests of the Andes. Shady found evidence of a rich trading environment, including
seeds of the cocoa bush and necklaces of shells, neither of which was native to the immediate
Caral area. This environment gave rise to people who did not take part in the production of
food, allowing them to become priests and planners, builders and designers. Thus occupational
specialization, elemental to an urban society, emerged.

But what sustained such a trading center and drew travelers to it? Was it food? Shady and her
team found the bones of small edible fish, which must have come from the Pacific coast to the
west, in the excavations. But they also found evidence of squash, sweet potatoes and beans
having been grown locally. Shady theorized that Caral's early farmers diverted the area's rivers
into canals, which still cross the Supe Valley today, to irrigate their fields. But because she
found no traces of maize, which can be traded or stored and used in times of crop failure, she
concluded that Caral's trade leverage was not based on stockpiling food supplies.


It was evidence of another crop in the excavations that gave Shady the best clue to Caral's
success. In nearly every excavated building, her team discovered evidence of cotton seeds,
fibers and textiles. Her theory fell into place when a large fishing net made of those fibers,
unearthed in an unrelated dig on Peru's coast, turned out to be as old as Caral. 'The farmers of
Caral grew the cotton that the fishermen needed to make their nets,' Shady speculates. 'And
the fishermen gave them shellfish and dried fish in exchange for these nets.' In essence, the
people of Caral enabled fishermen to work with larger and more effective nets, which made the
resources of the sea more readily available, and the fishermen probably used dried squash
grown by the Caral people as flotation devices for their nets.

Questions 1 - 6

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?

In boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1 Caral was built at the same time as the construction of the Egyptian pyramids.

2 The absence of pottery at the archaeological dig gave Shady a significant clue to the age

of the site.

3 The stones used to build Piramide Mayor came from a location far away.

4 The huge and complicated structures of Piramide Mayor suggest that its construction

required an organised team of builders.

5 Archaeological evidence shows that the residents of Caral were highly skilled musicians.

6 The remains of housing areas at Caral suggest that there were no class distinctions in

residential areas.

Questions 7 - 13

Complete the notes below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet.

                                        Caral as a trading centre

Items discovered at Caral but not naturally occurring in the area

􀁸 the 7 ……………………. of a certain plant

􀁸 8 ……………………. used to make jewellery

􀁸 the remains of certain food such as 9 …………………….

Clues to farming around Caral

􀁸 10 ……………………. still in existence today indicate water diverted from rivers

􀁸 no evidence that 11 ……………………. was grown

Evidence of relationship with fishing communities

􀁸 the excavation findings and fishing nets found on the coast suggest Caral farmers

traded 12 …………………….

􀁸 dried squash may have been used to aid 13 ……………………. of fishing nets

Questions 1-6: True/False/Not Given

1. Caral was built at the same time as the construction of the Egyptian pyramids.

   Answer: False

   Explanation: The passage states that Caral "flourished nearly 5,000 years ago" and was "a thriving metropolis when Egypt's great pyramids were still being built." This indicates that Caral existed during the same period but not necessarily that it was built simultaneously with the Egyptian pyramids.

2. The absence of pottery at the archaeological dig gave Shady a significant clue to the age of the site.

   Answer: True

   Explanation: The text mentions that Shady and her team did not find broken remains of pots and containers, which made her more excited as it suggested Caral could be "pre-ceramic," existing before pot-firing techniques were developed in the area.

3. The stones used to build Piramide Mayor came from a location far away.

   Answer: False

   Explanation: The passage indicates that workers filled bags with stones "from a nearby quarry," implying the stones were sourced locally.

4. The huge and complicated structures of Piramide Mayor suggest that its construction required an organised team of builders.

   Answer: True

   Explanation: The text notes that "thousands of manual laborers would have been needed to build such a project, not counting the many architects, craftsmen, and managers," indicating organized teamwork was essential.

5. Archaeological evidence shows that the residents of Caral were highly skilled musicians.

   Answer: Not Given

   Explanation: While the passage mentions the discovery of musical instruments, it does not provide information about the skill level of the musicians.

6. The remains of housing areas at Caral suggest that there were no class distinctions in residential areas.

   Answer: False

   Explanation: The text describes a hierarchy in living arrangements, with "large, well-kept rooms atop pyramids for the elite," and "shabbier outlying dwellings for workers," indicating clear class distinctions.

Questions 7-13: Note Completion

Caral as a trading centre

Items discovered at Caral but not naturally occurring in the area:

7. the seeds of a certain plant

   Answer: seeds

   Explanation: The passage mentions "seeds of the cocoa bush" were found, which were not native to the immediate Caral area.

8. used to make jewellery

   Answer: shells

   Explanation: "Necklaces of shells" were discovered, indicating items used for jewelry.

9. the remains of certain food such as

   Answer: fish

   Explanation: The text notes the finding of "bones of small edible fish," suggesting the consumption of fish.

Clues to farming around Caral:

10. still in existence today indicate water diverted from rivers

    Answer: canals

    Explanation: Shady theorized that farmers diverted rivers into "canals, which still cross the Supe Valley today."

11. no evidence that was grown

    Answer: maize

    Explanation: The passage states, "she found no traces of maize," indicating it was not grown.

Evidence of relationship with fishing communities:

12. the excavation findings and fishing nets found on the coast suggest Caral farmers traded

    Answer: cotton

    Explanation: Evidence of "cotton seeds, fibers and textiles" suggests that Caral farmers grew cotton, which was likely traded with fishermen.

13. dried squash may have been used to aid of fishing nets

    Answer: flotation

    Explanation: The text mentions that "dried squash grown by the Caral people" was probably used as "flotation devices for their nets."

PAST EXAM IELTS READING ANSWERS | Making Copier | Researcher on the Tree Crown | Asian Space 2 Satellite Technology | IELTS READING ANSWERS

 PAST EXAM IELTS READING ANSWERS 


TEST 1 


Making Copier

ANSWER

1. FALSE

2. NOT GIVEN

3. NOT GIVEN

4. TRUE

5. FALSE

6. FALSE

7. (normal) inventor

8. corporations

9. turned him down

10. commercial triumph

11. wealthy

12. possessions

13. charities



Researcher on the Tree Crown

ANSWER

14. B

15. C

16. A

17. F

18. E

19. locals

20. balloons

21. raft/rafts

22. (static) crane/ cranes

23. D

24. B

25. F

26. E

27. B


Asian Space 2 Satellite Technology

ANSWER

28. iv

29. vii

30. iii

31. ii

32. ix

33. F

34. B

35. D

36. A

37. FALSE

38. NOT GIVEN

39. TRUE

40. TRUE




TEST 2 

The development of the silk industry | Actual exam reading pdf | Past exam ielts reading pdf | 08 february ielts reading pdf for free | 08 February 2025 ielts reading pdf for free

Reading Practice

The development of the silk industry

Silk, a natural fibre produced by a particular worm called a silkworm, has been used in

clothing for many centuries.

When silk was first discovered in China over 4,500 years ago, it was reserved exclusively

for the use of the emperor, his close relations and the very highest of his dignitaries. Within

the palace, the emperor is believed to have worn a robe of white silk; outside, he, his

principal wife, and the heir to the throne wore yellow, the colour of the earth.

Gradually silk came into more general use, and the various classes of Chinese society

began wearing tunics of silk. As well as being used for clothing and decoration, silk was

quite quickly put to industrial use, and rapidly became one of the principal elements of the

Chinese economy. It was used in the production of musical instruments, as string for

fishing, and even as the world’s first luxury paper. Eventually even the common people

were able to wear garments of silk.

During the Han dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), silk ceased to be a mere fabric and became a

form of currency. Farmers paid their taxes in grain and silk, and silk was used to pay civil

servants and to reward subjects for outstanding services. Values were calculated in lengths

of silk as they had previously been calculated in weight of gold. Before long, silk became a

currency used in trade with foreign countries, which continued into the Tang dynasty (616-

907 AD). It is possible that this added importance was the result of a major increase in

production. Silk also found its way so thoroughly into the Chinese language that 230 of the

5,000 most common characters of Mandarin* have 'silk' as their key component. Silk

became a precious commodity, highly sought after by other countries from an early date,

and it is believed that the silk trade.

actually, existed before the Silk Road1" was officially opened in the second century BC. An

Egyptian mummy with a silk thread in her hair, dating from 1070 BC, has been discovered

in the village of Deir el Medina near the Valley of the Kings, and is probably the earliest

evidence of the silk trade. During the second century BC, the Chinese emperor Han Wu

Di’s ambassadors travelled as far west as Persia and Mesopotamia, bearing gifts including

silks. A range of important finds of Chinese silks have also been made along the Silk Road.

One of the most dramatic of these finds was some Tang silk discovered in 1900. It is

believed that around 1015 AD Buddhist monks, possibly alarmed by the threat of invasion

by Tibetan people, had sealed more than ten thousand manuscripts and silk paintings, silk

banners and textiles in caves near Dunhuang, a trading station on the Silk Road in northwest China.

 

Some historians believe the first Europeans to set eyes upon the fabulous fabric were the

Roman legions of Marcus Licinius Crassus, Governor of Syria. According to certain

accounts of the period, at an important battle near the Euphrates River in 53 BC, the

Roman soldiers were so startled by the bright silken banners of the enemy that they fled in

panic. Yet, within decades Chinese silks were widely worn by the rich and noble families of

Rome. The Roman Emperor Heliogabalus (218-222 AD) wore nothing but silk. By 380 AD,

the Roman historian Marcellinnus Ammianus reported that. The use of silk, which was

one confined to the nobility, has now spread to all classes without distinction - even to the

lowest. The desire for silk continued to increase over the centuries. Despite this demand,

the price of silk remained very high.

 

 

In spite of their secrecy about production methods, the Chinese eventually lost them

monopoly on silk production. Knowledge of silk production methods reached Korea around

200 BC, when waves of Chinese immigrants arrived there. Shortly after 300 AD, it travelled

westward, and the cultivation of the silkworm was established in India.

Around 550 AD silk production reached the Middle East. Records indicate that two monks

from Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), capital of the Byzantine Empire, appeared at

their emperor’s court with silkworm eggs which they had obtained secretly, and hidden in

their hollow bamboo walking sticks. Under their supervision the eggs hatched into worms,

and the worms spun silk threads. Byzantium was in the silk business at last. The Byzantine

church and state created imperial workshops, monopolising production and keeping the

secret to themselves. This allowed a silk industry to be established, undercutting the

market for ordinary-grade Chinese silk. However, high quality silk textiles, woven in China

especially for the Middle Eastern market, continued to achieve high prices in the West, and

trade along the Silk Road continued as before. By the sixth century the Persians, too, had

mastered the art of silk weaving, developing their own rich patterns and techniques. But it

wasn’t until the 13th century that Italy began silk production, with the introduction of 2,000

skilled silk weavers from Constantinople. Eventually, silk production became widespread

throughout Europe.

World silk production has approximately doubled during the last 30 years in spite of

manmade fibres replacing certain uses of silk. Before this period, China and Japan were

the two main producers, together manufacturing more than 50 per cent of world production

each year. After the late 1970s, however, China dramatically increased its silk production,

and once again became the world’s leading producer.

 

 

 

Questions 1-7

Complete the notes below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.

                                                   Chinese silk

Early Uses

Clothing

                -at first, silk only available to Chinese of high rank

                -emperor wore 1..................... silk indoors

In industry

               -silk items included parts of musical instruments, fishing strings and 2.....................

Currency

               -silk was used as payment of 3..................... as well as for wages and rewards

               -silk replaced 4..................... as a unit of value

                -silk soon used as payment in 5..................... trade

Evidence of silk trade

1070 BC, Egypt:

       -      hair of a 6..................... contained silk 2nd century BC, Persia and Mesopotamia: gifts of

             silk were presented by Chinese ambassadors1015 AD, north-west China: silk objects

             were hidden inside 7.....................

 

Questions 8-13

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1 ?

In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

 

 

8..................... Their first sight of silk created fear among Roman soldiers.

9..................... The quality of Chinese silk imported by the early Romans varied widely.

10..................... The Byzantine emperor first acquired silkworm eggs from the Chinese

emperor.

11..................... The price of high-grade Chinese silk fell due to competition from Middle Access

Eastern producers.

12..................... Silk was produced in the Middle East several centuries before it was

produced in Europe.

13..................... Global silk production has declined in recent years.

 

 

 

Solution:

1. white            8. TRUE

2. paper            9. NOT GIVEN

3. taxes            10. FALSE

4. gold             11. FALSE

5. foreign        12. TRUE

6. mummy      13. FALSE

7. caves

 

Notes Completion (Questions 1-7)

1. white

• Reason: The passage states that the emperor wore a robe of white silk inside the palace.
• Location: “Within the palace, the emperor is believed to have worn a robe of white silk.”

2. paper

• Reason: The passage mentions that silk was used to make musical instruments, fishing strings, and luxury paper.
• Location: “It was used in the production of musical instruments, as string for fishing, and even as the world’s first luxury paper.”

3. taxes

• Reason: The passage states that farmers paid their taxes in silk.
• Location: “Farmers paid their taxes in grain and silk, and silk was used to pay civil servants and to reward subjects for outstanding services.”

4. gold

• Reason: The passage states that silk replaced gold as a unit of value.
• Location: “Values were calculated in lengths of silk as they had previously been calculated in weight of gold.”

5. foreign

• Reason: The passage mentions that silk became a currency used in foreign trade.
• Location: “Before long, silk became a currency used in trade with foreign countries.”

6. mummy

• Reason: The passage states that a silk thread was found in the hair of an Egyptian mummy from 1070 BC.
• Location: “An Egyptian mummy with a silk thread in her hair, dating from 1070 BC, has been discovered in the village of Deir el Medina near the Valley of the Kings.”

7. caves

• Reason: The passage states that Buddhist monks sealed silk objects inside caves in north-west China.
• Location: “Around 1015 AD Buddhist monks … had sealed more than ten thousand manuscripts and silk paintings, silk banners and textiles in caves near Dunhuang, a trading station on the Silk Road in north-west China.”

---

True/False/Not Given (Questions 8-13)

8. TRUE

• Reason: The passage states that Roman soldiers were so startled by the bright silk banners that they fled in panic.
• Location: “At an important battle near the Euphrates River in 53 BC, the Roman soldiers were so startled by the bright silken banners of the enemy that they fled in panic.”

9. NOT GIVEN

• Reason: The passage mentions that Chinese silk was widely worn by Romans, but it does not mention whether the quality varied.
• Location: No direct reference to variations in quality of imported silk.

10. FALSE

• Reason: The passage states that two monks from Constantinople secretly obtained silkworm eggs and brought them to their emperor, not from the Chinese emperor.
• Location: “Records indicate that two monks from Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), capital of the Byzantine Empire, appeared at their emperor’s court with silkworm eggs which they had obtained secretly.”

11. FALSE

• Reason: The passage states that high-quality Chinese silk continued to achieve high prices despite Middle Eastern production.
• Location: “High-quality silk textiles, woven in China especially for the Middle Eastern market, continued to achieve high prices in the West.”

12. TRUE

• Reason: The passage states that silk production reached the Middle East around 550 AD, but Europe only started producing silk in the 13th century.
• Location: “Around 550 AD silk production reached the Middle East.” and “But it wasn’t until the 13th century that Italy began silk production.”

13. FALSE

• Reason: The passage states that world silk production has doubled in the last 30 years, meaning it has increased, not declined.
• Location: “World silk production has approximately doubled during the last 30 years.”

---

Traditional Farming System in Africa | Actual exam reading pdf | Past exam ielts reading pdf | 08 february ielts reading pdf for free | 08 February 2025 ielts reading pdf for free

 Passage 1 Traditional Farming System in Africa

SECTION 1

READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

Traditional Farming System in Africa

A

By tradition land in Luapula is not owned by individuals, but as in many other parts of Africa is allocated by the headman or headwoman of a village to people of either sex, according to need. Since land is generally prepared by hand, one ulupwa cannot take on a very large area; in this sense land has not been a limiting resource over large parts of the province. The situation has already changed near the main townships, and there has long been a scarcity of land for cultivation in the Valley. In these areas registered ownership patterns are becoming prevalent.

B

Most of the traditional cropping in Luapula, as in the Bemba area to the east, is based on citemene, a system whereby crops are grown on the ashes of tree branches. As a rule, entire trees are not felled, but are pollarded so that they can regenerate. Branches are cut over an area of varying size early in the dry season, and stacked to dry over a rough circle about a fifth to a tenth of the pollarded area. The wood is fired before the rains and in the first year planted with the African cereal finger millet (Eleusine coracane).

C

During the second season, and possibly for a few seasons more the area is planted to variously mixed combinations of annuals such as maize, pumpkins (Telfiria occidentalis) and other cucurbits, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, Phaseolus beans and various leafy vegetables, grown with a certain amount of rotation. The diverse sequence ends with vegetable cassava, which is often planted into the developing last-but-one crop as a relay.

D

Richards (1969) observed that the practice of citemene entails a definite division of labour between men and women. A man stakes out a plot in an unobtrusive manner, since it is considered provocative towards one’s neighbours to mark boundaries in an explicit way. The dangerous work of felling branches is the men’s province, and involves much pride. Branches are stacked by the women, and fired by the men. Formerly women and men cooperated in the planting work, but the harvesting was always done by the women. At the beginning of the cycle little weeding is necessary, since the firing of the branches effectively destroys weeds. As the cycle progresses weeds increase and nutrients eventually become depleted to a point where further effort with annual crops is judged to be not worthwhile: at this point the cassava is planted, since it can produce a crop on nearly exhausted soil. Thereafter the plot is abandoned, and a new area pollarded for the next citemene cycle.

E

When forest is not available – this is increasingly the case nowadays – various ridging systems (ibala) are built on small areas, to be planted with combinations of maize, beans, groundnuts and sweet potatoes, usually relayed with cassava. These plots are usually tended by women, and provide subsistence. Where their roots have year-round access to water tables mango, guava and oil-palm trees often grow around houses, forming a traditional agroforestry system. In season some of the fruit is sold by the roadside or in local markets.

F

The margins of dambos are sometimes planted to local varieties of rice during the rainy season, and areas adjacent to vegetables irrigated with water from the dambo during the dry season. The extend of cultivation is very limited, no doubt because the growing of crops under dambo conditions calls for a great deal of skill. Near towns some of the vegetable produce is sold in local markets.

G

Fishing has long provided a much needed protein supplement to the diet of Luapulans, as well as being the one substantial source of cash. Much fish is dried for sale to areas away from the main waterways. The Mweru and Bangweulu Lake Basins are the main areas of year-round fishing, but the Luapula River is also exploited during the latter part of the dry season. Several previously abundant and desirable species, such as the Luapula salmon or mpumbu (Labeo altivelis) and pale (Sarotherodon machochir) have all but disappeared from Lake Mweru, apparently due to mismanagement.

H

Fishing has always been a far more remunerative activity in Luapula that crop husbandry. A fisherman may earn more in a week than a bean or maize grower in a whole season. I sometimes heard claims that the relatively high earnings to be obtained from fishing induced an ‘easy come, easy go’ outlook among Luapulan men. On the other hand, someone who secures good but erratic earnings may feel that their investment in an economically productive activity is not worthwhile because Luapulans fail to cooperate well in such activities. Besides, a fisherman with spare cash will find little in the way of working equipment to spend his money on. Better spend one’s money in the bars and have a good time!

I

Only small numbers of cattle or oxen are kept in the province owing to the prevalence of the tse-tse fly. For the few herds, the dambos provide subsistence grazing during the dry season. The absence of animal draft power greatly limits peoples’ ability to plough and cultivate land: a married couple can rarely manage to prepare by hand-hoeing. Most people keep freely roaming chickens and goats. These act as a reserve for bartering, but may also be occasionally slaughtered for ceremonies or for entertaining important visitors. These animals are not a regular part of most peoples’ diet.

J

Citemene has been an ingenious system for providing people with seasonal production of high quality cereals and vegetables in regions of acid, heavily leached soils. Nutritionally, the most serious deficiency was that of protein. This could at times be alleviated when fish was available, provided that cultivators lived near the Valley and could find the means of bartering for dried fish. The citemene/fishing system was well adapted to the ecology of the miombo regions and sustainable for long periods, but only as long as human population densities stayed at low levels. Although population densities are still much lower than in several countries of South-East Asia, neither the fisheries nor the forests and woodlands of Luapula are capable, with unmodified traditional practices, of supporting the people in a sustainable manner.

Overall, people must learn to intensify and diversify their productive systems while yet ensuring that these systems will remain productive in the future, when even more people will need food. Increasing overall production of food, though a vast challenge in itself, will not be enough, however. At the same time storage and distribution systems must allow everyone access to at least a moderate share of the total.

Questions 1-4

Complete the sentences below with words taken from Reading Passage 1.

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.

1 In Luapula land allocation is in accordance with……………

2 The citemene system provides the land with ……………….. where crops are planted.

3 During the second season, the last planted crop is………………

4 Under suitable conditions, fruit trees are planted near………………

Questions 5-8

Classify the following items with the correct description.

Write your answers in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.

A fish

B oxen

C goats

5 be used in some unusual occasions, such as celebrations.

6 cannot thrive for being affected by the pests.

7 be the largest part of creating profit.

8 be sold beyond the local area.

Questions 9-12

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?

In boxes 9-12 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

9 People rarely use animals to cultivate land.

10 When it is a busy time, children usually took part in the labor force.

11 The local residents eat goats on a regular time.

12 Though citemene has been a sophisticated system, it could not provide enough protein.

Question 13

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

Write the correct letter in the box 13 on your answer sheet.

What is the writer’s opinion about the traditional ways of practices?

A They can supply the nutrition that people need.

B They are not capable of providing adequate support to the population.

C They are productive systems that need no more improving.

D They will be easily modified in the future.

Questions 1-4 (Sentence Completion)

1. need
   Location: Paragraph A – "land in Luapula is ... allocated by the headman or headwoman of a village to people of either sex, according to need."
   Explanation: The sentence explicitly states that land is given based on need.

2. (the) ashes
   Location: Paragraph B – "Most of the traditional cropping in Luapula ... is based on citemene, a system whereby crops are grown on the ashes of tree branches."
   Explanation: The passage explains that crops are planted on ashes in the citemene system.

3. (vegetable) cassava
   Location: Paragraph C – "The diverse sequence ends with vegetable cassava."
   Explanation: The passage states that cassava is the last crop planted in the cycle.

4. houses
   Location: Paragraph E – "Mango, guava and oil-palm trees often grow around houses."
   Explanation: The passage mentions that fruit trees grow near houses under suitable conditions.

Questions 5-8 (Classification)

5. C (goats)
   Location: Paragraph I – "These act as a reserve for bartering, but may also be occasionally slaughtered for ceremonies or for entertaining important visitors."
   Explanation: Goats are used on special occasions like ceremonies.

6. B (oxen)
   Location: Paragraph I – "Only small numbers of cattle or oxen are kept in the province owing to the prevalence of the tse-tse fly."
   Explanation: Oxen cannot thrive due to pests (tse-tse fly).

7. A (fish)
   Location: Paragraph H – "Fishing has always been a far more remunerative activity in Luapula than crop husbandry."
   Explanation: The passage states that fishing generates more profit than farming.

8. A (fish)
   Location: Paragraph G – "Much fish is dried for sale to areas away from the main waterways."
   Explanation: Fish is sold beyond the local area.

Questions 9-12 (True/False/Not Given)

9. TRUE
   Location: Paragraph I – "The absence of animal draft power greatly limits peoples’ ability to plough and cultivate land."
   Explanation: The passage confirms that animals are rarely used for cultivation.

10. NOT GIVEN
    Explanation: There is no information in the passage about children participating in labor.

11. FALSE
    Location: Paragraph I – "These animals are not a regular part of most peoples’ diet."
    Explanation: The passage explicitly states that goats are not regularly eaten.

12. TRUE
    Location: Paragraph J – "Nutritionally, the most serious deficiency was that of protein."
    Explanation: The passage confirms that the system could not provide enough protein.

Question 13 (Multiple Choice)

Answer: B
Location: Paragraph J – "Neither the fisheries nor the forests and woodlands of Luapula are capable, with unmodified traditional practices, of supporting the people in a sustainable manner."
Explanation: The passage states that traditional practices are not sufficient to support the growing population.

ANSWER

1. need

2. (the) ashes

3. (vegetable) cassava

4. houses

5. C

6. B

7. A

8. A

9. TRUE

10. NOT GIVEN

11. FALSE

12. TRUE

13. B

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Reading Practice

Yawning

How and why we yarn still presents problems for researchers in an area which has only

recently been opened up to study

When Robert R Provine began studying yawning in the 1960s, it was difficult for him to convince research students of the merits of 'yawning science1. Although it may appear quirky to some, Provine's decision to study yawning was a logical extension of his research in developmental neuroscience.

The verb 'to yawn' is derived from the Old English ganien or ginian, meaning to gape or open wide. But in addition to gaping jaws, yawning has significant features that are easy to observe and analyse. Provine 'collected' yawns to study by using a variation of the contagion response*. He asked people to 'think about yawning' and, once they began to yawn to depress a button and that would record from the start of the yawn to the exhalation at its end.

Provine's early discoveries can be summanized as follows: the yawn is highly stereotyped but not invariant in its duration and form. It is an excellent example of the instinctive 'fixed action pattern' of classical animal-behavior study, or ethology. It is not a reflex (shortduration, rapid, proportional response to a simple stimulus), but, once started, a yawn progresses with the inevitability of a sneeze. The standard yawn runs its course over about six seconds on average, but its duration can range from about three seconds to much longer than the average. There are no half-yawns: this is an example of the typical intensity of fixed action patterns and a reason why you cannot stifle yawns. Just like a cough, yawns can come in bouts with a highly variable inter-yawn interval, which is generally about 68 seconds but rarely more than 70. There is no relation between yawn frequency and duration: producers of short or long yawns do not compensate by yawning more or less often. Furthermore, Provine's hypotheses about the form and function of yawning can be tested by three informative yawn variants which can be used to look at the roles of the nose, the mouth and the jaws.

i) The closed nose yawn

Subjects are asked to pinch their nose closed when they feel themselves start to yawn. Most subjects report being able to perform perfectly normal closed nose yawns. This indicates that the inhalation at the onset of a yawn, and the exhalation at its end, need not involve the nostrils - the mouth provides a sufficient airway.

ii) The clenched teeth yawn

Subjects are asked to clench their teeth when they feel themselves start to yawn but allow themselves to inhale normally through their open lips and clenched teeth. This variant gives one the sensation of being stuck midyawn. This shows that gaping of the jaws is an essential component of the fixed action pattern of the yawn, and unless it is accomplished, the program (or pattern) will not run to completion. The yawn is also shown to be more than a deep breath, because, unlike normal breathing, inhalation and exhalation cannot be performed so well through the clenched teeth as through the nose.

iii) The nose yawn

This variant tests the adequacy of the nasal airway to sustain a yawn. Unlike normal breathing, which can be performed equally well through mouth or nose, yawning is impossible via nasal inhalation alone. As with the clenched teeth yawn, the nose yawn provides the unfulfilling sensation of being stuck in mid-yawn. Exhalation, on the other hand, can be accomplished equally well through nose or mouth. Through thin methodology Provine demonstrated that inhalation through the oral airway and the gaping of jaws are necessary for normal yawns. The motor program for yawning will not run to completion without feedback that these parts of the program have been accomplished. 

But yawning is a powerful, generalized movement that involves much more than airway maneuvres and jaw-gaping. When yawning you also stretch your facial muscles, tilt your head back, narrow or close your eyes, produce tears, salivate, open the Eustachian tubes of your middle ear and perform many other, yet unspecified, cardiovascular and respiratory acts. Perhaps the yawn shares components with other behaviour. For example, in the yawn a kind of 'slow sneeze1 or is the sneeze a 'fast yawn'? Both share common respiratory and other features including jaw gaping, eye closing and head tilting. 

Yawning and stretching share properties and may be performed together as parts of a global motor complex. Studies by J I p deVries et al. in the early 1980s, charting movement in the developing foet US using ultrasound, observed a link between yawning and stretching. The most extraordinary demonstration of the yawn-stretch linkage occurs in many people paralyzed on one side of their body because of brain damage caused by a stroke, the prominent British neurologist Sir Francis Walshe noted in 1923 that when these people yawn, they are startled and mystified to observe that their otherwise paralyzed arm rises and flexes automatically in what neurologists term an 'associated response'. Yawning apparently activates undamaged, unconsciously controlled connections between the brain and the motor system, causing the paralyzed limb to move. It is not known whether the associated response is a positive prognosis for recovery, nor whether yawning is therapeutic for prevention of muscular deterioration. 

Provine speculated that, in general, yawning may have many functions, and selecting a single function from the available options may be an unrealistic goal. Yawning appears to be associated with a change of behavioral state, switching from one activity to another. Yawning is also a reminder that ancient and unconscious behavior linking US to the animal world lurks beneath the veneer of culture, rationality and language.

 

Questions 1-6

Complete the summary below using the list of words, A-K, below

Write the correct letter, A-K, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.

 

Provine's early findings on yawns

Through his observation of yawns, Province was able to confirm that 1..................... do not

exist. Just like a 2..................... , yawns cannot be interrupted after they have begun. This is

because yawns occur as a 3..................... rather than a stimulus response as was

previously thought. In measuring the time taken to yawn, provive found that a typical yawn lasts about 4....................... He also found that it is a common for people to yawn a number of times in quick succession with the yawns usually being around 5..................... apart. When studying whether length and rate were connected. Province concluded that people who yawn less do not necessarily produce 6..................... to make up for this.

 

 

 

Questions 7-11

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

Write the correct letter in boxes 7-11 on your answer sheet.

 

7. What did Provine conclude from his 'closed nose yawn1 experiment?

A Ending a yawn requires use of the nostrils.

B You can yawn without breathing through your nose

C Breathing through the nose produces a silent yawn.

D The role of the nose in yawning needs further investigation.

 

8. Provine's clenched teeth yawn's experiment shows that

A yawning is unconnected with fatigue.

B a yawn is the equivalent of a deep intake of breath.

C you have to be able to open your mouth wide to yawn.

D breathing with the teeth together is as efficient as through the nose.

 

9. The nose yawn experiment was used to test weather yawning

A can be stopped after it has stated

B is the result of motor programing

C involves both inhalation and exhalation.

D can be accomplished only through the nose.

 

10. In people paralyzed on one side because of brain damage

A yawning may involve only one side of the face.

B the yawing response indicates that recovery is likely

C movement in paralysed arm is stimulated by yawming

D yawning can be used as an example to prevent muscle wasting.

 

11. In the last paragraph, the writer concludes that

A yawning is a sign of boredom.

B we yawn is spite of the development of our species

C yawning is a more passive activity than we Imagine

D we are stimulated to yawn when our brain activity is low.

 

Questions 12-14

Questions 12-14

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage?

In boxes 12-14 on your answer sheet, write

 

YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer

NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

 

12..................... Research students were initially reluctant to appreciate the value

of Provine's studies.

13..................... When foetuses yawn and stretch they are learning how to control

movement.

14..................... According to Provine, referring to only one function is probably

inadequate to explain why people yawn.

 

Questions 1–6: Summary Completion

1. K (half-yawns)

   • Reason: The passage states, "There are no half-yawns: this is an example of the typical intensity of fixed action patterns and a reason why you cannot stifle yawns." This confirms that half-yawns do not exist.
   • Location: Paragraph 3.

2. H (sneeze)

   • Reason: The passage explains, "Just like a cough, yawns can come in bouts... with a highly variable inter-yawn interval." Furthermore, it mentions, "Once started, a yawn progresses with the inevitability of a sneeze." This likens yawns to sneezes in terms of their unstoppable nature.
   • Location: Paragraph 3.

3. D (fixed action pattern)

   • Reason: Provine concluded that yawns are "an example of the instinctive 'fixed action pattern' of classical animal-behavior study, or ethology," and not just simple reflexes.
   • Location: Paragraph 3.

4. J (6 seconds)

   • Reason: The passage mentions, "The standard yawn runs its course over about six seconds on average."
   • Location: Paragraph 3.

5. E (68 seconds)

   • Reason: The passage notes, "Inter-yawn interval is generally about 68 seconds but rarely more than 70."
   • Location: Paragraph 3.

6. B (long yawns)

   • Reason: The text states, "There is no relation between yawn frequency and duration: producers of short or long yawns do not compensate by yawning more or less often."
   • Location: Paragraph 3.

---

Questions 7–11: Multiple Choice

7. B (You can yawn without breathing through your nose)

   • Reason: In the closed nose yawn experiment, it was found that yawns can still occur when the nose is pinched shut, showing the nose isn't essential for yawning.
   • Location: Paragraph 4, "This indicates that the inhalation at the onset of a yawn, and the exhalation at its end, need not involve the nostrils—the mouth provides a sufficient airway."

8. C (you have to be able to open your mouth wide to yawn)

   • Reason: The clenched teeth yawn experiment demonstrated that "gaping of the jaws is an essential component of the fixed action pattern of the yawn," and the yawn feels incomplete without it.
   • Location: Paragraph 5.

9. D (can be accomplished only through the nose)

   • Reason: The nose yawn experiment tested whether yawning could be achieved using only the nasal airway. It concluded that yawning "is impossible via nasal inhalation alone."
   • Location: Paragraph 6.

10. C (movement in paralyzed arm is stimulated by yawning)

• Reason: The text describes how people paralyzed on one side of their body experience "the paralyzed arm rises and flexes automatically" during yawning.
• Location: Paragraph 7.

11. B (we yawn in spite of the development of our species)

• Reason: The writer concludes, "Yawning is also a reminder that ancient and unconscious behavior linking us to the animal world lurks beneath the veneer of culture, rationality, and language."
• Location: Last paragraph.

---

Questions 12–14: Yes/No/Not Given

12. YES

• Reason: The text states, "It was difficult for him to convince research students of the merits of 'yawning science.'" This shows students were initially reluctant.
• Location: Paragraph 1.

13. NOT GIVEN

• Reason: While the passage mentions yawning and stretching in fetuses, it does not discuss whether these actions help them learn to control movement.
• Location: Paragraph 7.

14. YES

• Reason: Provine speculated, "Selecting a single function from the available options may be an unrealistic goal." This confirms that referring to only one function is insufficient.
• Location: Last paragraph.

---

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SECTION 1

READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

Education Philosophy

A

Although we lack accurate statistics about child mortality in the pre-industrial period, we do have evidence that in the 1660s, the mortality rate for children who died within 14 days of birth was as much as 30 per cent. Nearly all families suffered some premature death. Since all parents expected to bury some of their children, they found it difficult to invest in their newborn children. Moreover, to protect themselves from the emotional consequences of children’s death, parents avoided making any emotional commitment to an infant. It is no wonder that we find mothers leave their babies in gutters or refer to the death in the same paragraph with reference to pickles.

B

The 18th century witnessed the transformation from an agrarian economy to an industrial one, one of the vital social changes taking place in the Western world. An increasing number of people moved from their villages and small towns to big cities where life was quite different. Social supports which had previously existed in smaller communities were replaced by ruthless problems such as poverty, crime, substandard housing and disease. Due to the need for additional income to support the family, young children from the poorest families were forced into early employment and thus their childhood became painfully short. Children as young as 7 might be required to work full-time, subjected to unpleasant and unhealthy circumstances, from factories to prostitution. Although such a role has disappeared in most wealthy countries, the practice of childhood employment still remains a staple in underdeveloped countries and rarely disappeared entirely.

C

The lives of children underwent a drastic change during the 1800s in the United States. Previously, children from both rural and urban families were expected to participate in everyday labour due to the bulk of manual hard working. Nevertheless, thanks to the technological advances of the mid-1800s, coupled with the rise of the middle class and redefinition of roles of family members, work and home became less synonymous over time. People began to purchase toys and books for their children. When the country depended more upon machines, children in rural and urban areas, were less likely to be required to work at home. Beginning from the Industrial Revolution and rising slowly over the course of the 19th century, this trend increased exponentially after civil war. John Locke, one of the most influential writers of his period, created the first clear and comprehensive statement of the ‘environmental position’ that family education determines a child’s life, and via this, he became the father of modem learning theory. During the colonial period, his teachings about child care gained a lot of recognition in America.

D

According to Jean Jacques Rousseau, who lived in an era of the American and French Revolution, people were ‘noble savages’ in the original state of nature, meaning they are innocent, free and uncorrupted. In 1762, Rousseau wrote a famous novel Emile to convey his educational philosophy through a story of a boy’s education from infancy to adult-hood. This work was based on his extensive observation of children and adolescents, their individuality, his developmental theory and on the memories of his own childhood. He contrasts children with adults and describes their age-specific characteristics in terms of historical perspective and developmental psychology. Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi, living during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, sought to develop schools to nurture children’s all-round development. He agreed with Rousseau that humans are naturally good but were spoiled by a corrupt society. His approach to teaching consists of the general and special methods, and his theory was based upon establishing an emotionally healthy homelike learning environment, which had to be in place before more specific instructions occurred.

E

One of the best-documented cases of Pestalozzi’s theory concerned a so-called feral child named Victor, who was captured in a small town in the south of France in 1800. Prepubescent, mute, naked, and perhaps 11 or 12 years old, Victor had been seen foraging for food in the gardens of the locals in the area and sometimes accepted people’s direct offers of food before his final capture. Eventually, he was brought to Paris and expected to answer some profound questions about the nature of human, but that goal was quashed very soon. A young physician Jean Marc Gaspard Itard was optimistic about the future of Victor and initiated a five-year education plan to civilise him and teach him to speak. With a subsidy from the government, Itard recruited a local woman Madame Guerin to assist him to provide a semblance of a home for Victor, and he spent an enormous amount of time and effort working with Victor. Itard’s goal to teach Victor the basics of speech could never be fully achieved, but Victor had learnt some elementary forms of communication.

F

Although other educators were beginning to recognise the simple truth embedded in Rousseau’s philosophy, it is not enough to identify the stages of children’s development alone. There must be certain education which had to be geared towards those stages. One of the early examples was the invention of kindergarten, which was a word and a movement created by a German-born educator, Friedrich Froebel in 1840. Froebel placed a high value on the importance of play in children’s learning. His invention would spread around the world eventually in a verity of forms. Froebel’s ideas were inspired through his cooperation with Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Froebel didn’t introduce the notion of kindergarten until 58 years old, and he had been a teacher for four decades. The notion was a haven and a preparation for children who were about to enter the regimented educational system. The use of guided or structured play was a cornerstone of his kindergarten education because he believed that play was the most significant aspect of development at this time of life. Play served as a mechanism for a child to grow emotionally and to achieve a sense of self-worth. Meanwhile, teachers served to organise materials and a structured environment in which each child, as an individual, could achieve these goals. When Froebel died in 1852, dozens of kindergartens had been created in Germany. Kindergartens began to increase in Europe, and the movement eventually reached and flourished in the United States in the 20th century.

Questions 1-4

Reading Passage 1 has six paragraphs, A-F.

Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A and C-E from the list of headings below.

Write the correct number, i-vii, in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

i The inheritance and development of educational concepts of different thinkers

ii Why children had to work to alleviate the burden on family

iii Why children are not highly valued

iv The explanation for children dying in hospital at their early age

v The first appearance of modem educational philosophy

vi The application of a creative learning method on a wild kid

vii The emergence and spread of the notion of kindergarten

1 Paragraph A

Example Answer

Paragraph B ii

2 Paragraph C

3 Paragraph D

4 Paragraph E

Questions 5-8

Look at the following events (Questions 5-8) and the list of dates below.

Match each event with the correct date, A, B or C.

Write the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.

NB You may use any letter more than once.

List of Dates

A the 18th century (1700-1799)

B the 19th century (1800-1899)

C the 20th century (1900-1999)

5 the need for children to work

6 the rise of the middle class

7 the emergence of a kindergarten

8 the spread of kindergartens around the U.S.

Questions 9-13

Look at the following opinions or deeds (Questions 9-13) and the list of people below.

Match each opinion or deed with the correct person, A, B, C or D.

Write the correct letter, A, B, C or D, in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet.

NB You may use any letter more than once.

List of People

A Jean Jacques Rousseau

B Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi

C Jean Marc Gaspard Itard

D Friedrich Froebel

9 was not successful to prove the theory

10 observed a child’s record

11 requested a study setting with emotional comfort firstly

12 proposed that corruption was not a characteristic in people’s nature

13 was responsible for an increase in the number of a type of school

Answers and Explanation

Headings (Questions 1-4)

1. Paragraph A - iii: Why children are not highly valued
   Reason: Paragraph A discusses high child mortality rates and how parents avoided emotional commitment to children due to the expectation of their premature death. This supports the heading "Why children are not highly valued."
   Location in Passage: Lines discussing parents avoiding emotional commitment and children being treated indifferently (e.g., "parents avoided making any emotional commitment to an infant").

2. Paragraph C - v: The first appearance of modern educational philosophy
   Reason: Paragraph C discusses the influence of John Locke, a key figure in modern educational philosophy, whose teachings on child care and environmental impact gained recognition in America.
   Location in Passage: Lines mentioning John Locke's influence on family education and learning theory.

3. Paragraph D - i: The inheritance and development of educational concepts of different thinkers
   Reason: Paragraph D discusses Jean Jacques Rousseau and Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi, their theories on child development, and their contributions to education, showing the inheritance and development of ideas.
   Location in Passage: Lines detailing Rousseau's philosophy on natural goodness and Pestalozzi's emotionally healthy learning environments.

4. Paragraph E - vi: The application of a creative learning method on a wild kid
   Reason: Paragraph E describes Jean Marc Gaspard Itard's attempt to educate Victor, the feral child, using creative methods to civilize and teach basic communication skills.
   Location in Passage: Lines explaining Itard's five-year education plan for Victor and the partial success achieved.

---

Dates (Questions 5-8)

5. The need for children to work - A (the 18th century)
   Reason: Paragraph B explains how the Industrial Revolution (18th century) forced children to work in harsh conditions to support families.
   Location in Passage: Lines discussing children as young as 7 working in factories or prostitution.

6. The rise of the middle class - B (the 19th century)
   Reason: Paragraph C highlights technological advances and the rise of the middle class in the 19th century, leading to a shift in children's roles.
   Location in Passage: Lines mentioning the changes in family roles and the reduced need for children to work.

7. The emergence of a kindergarten - B (the 19th century)
   Reason: Paragraph F states Friedrich Froebel created the kindergarten concept in 1840, which falls in the 19th century.
   Location in Passage: Lines discussing Froebel’s introduction of kindergarten in 1840.

8. The spread of kindergartens around the U.S. - C (the 20th century)
   Reason: Paragraph F mentions that kindergartens flourished in the United States during the 20th century.
   Location in Passage: Lines detailing the expansion of kindergartens in the U.S.

---

People (Questions 9-13)

9. Was not successful to prove the theory - C (Jean Marc Gaspard Itard)
   Reason: Itard attempted to teach Victor to speak but was only partially successful.
   Location in Passage: Lines explaining Itard’s efforts to teach Victor the basics of speech.

10. Observed a child’s record - A (Jean Jacques Rousseau)
    Reason: Rousseau’s novel "Emile" was based on his observation of children and adolescents.
    Location in Passage: Lines mentioning Rousseau’s observations and developmental theory.

11. Requested a study setting with emotional comfort firstly - B (Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi)
    Reason: Pestalozzi emphasized creating an emotionally healthy learning environment before formal instruction.
    Location in Passage: Lines about Pestalozzi’s approach to establishing a homelike environment.

12. Proposed that corruption was not a characteristic in people’s nature - A (Jean Jacques Rousseau)
    Reason: Rousseau stated that humans are naturally good and corrupted by society.
    Location in Passage: Lines explaining Rousseau’s philosophy of humans as "noble savages."

13. Was responsible for an increase in the number of a type of school - D (Friedrich Froebel)
    Reason: Froebel’s kindergarten concept led to the creation of dozens of kindergartens in Germany and their spread worldwide.
    Location in Passage: Lines about Froebel’s kindergarten movement and its global expansion.

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READING PASSAGE 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 28-40 which are based on Reading

Passage 3 below.

Elephant communication

A

postdoctoral fellow at Stanford University, O’Connell-Rodwell has come to Namibia’s

premiere wildlife sanctuary to explore the mysterious and complex world of elephant

communication. She and her colleagues are part of a scientific revolution that began

nearly two decades ago with the stunning revelation that elephants communicate over

long distances using low-frequency sounds, also called infrasounds, that are too deep to

be heard by most humans.

B

s might be expected, the African elephant’s ability to sense seismic sound may begin in

the ears. The hammer bone of the elephant’s inner ear is proportionally very large for a

mammal, buy typical for animals that use vibrational signals. It may, therefore, be a sign

that elephants can communicate with seismic sounds. Also, the elephant and its relative

the manatee are unique among mammals in having reverted to a reptilian-like cochlear

structure in the inner ear. The cochlea of reptiles facilitates a keen sensitivity to

vibrations and may do the same in elephants.

C

But other aspects of elephant anatomy also support that ability. First, their enormous

bodies, which allow them to generate low-frequency sounds almost as powerful as those

of a jet takeoff, provide ideal frames for receiving ground vibrations and conducting

them to the inner ear. Second, the elephant’s toe bones rest on a fatty pad that might

help focus vibrations from the ground into the bone. Finally, the elephant’s enormous

brain lies in the cranial cavity behind the eyes in line with the auditory canal. The front

of the skull is riddled with sinus cavities that may function as resonating chambers for

vibrations from the ground.

D

ow the elephants sense these vibrations is still unknown, but O’Connell-Rodwell who

just earned a graduate degree in entomology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa,

suspects the pachyderms are “listening” with their trunks and feet. The trunk may be the

most versatile appendage in nature. Its uses include drinking, bathing, smelling, feeding

and scratching. Both trunk and feet contain two kinds of pressure-sensitive nerve

endings – one that detects infrasonic vibrations and another that responds to vibrations

with slightly higher frequencies. For O’Connell-Rodwell, the future of the research is

boundless and unpredictable: “Our work is really at the interface of geophysics,

neurophysiology and ecology,” she says. “We’re asking questions that no one has really

dealt with before.”

E

Scientists have long known that seismic communication is common in small animals,

including spiders, scorpions, insects and a number of vertebrate species such as whitelipped

frogs, blind mole rats, kangaroo rats and golden moles. They also have found

evidence of seismic sensitivity in elephant seals – 2-ton marine mammals that are not

related to elephants. But O’Connell-Rodwell was the first to suggest that a large land

animal also in sending and receiving seismic messages. O’Connell-Rodwell noticed

something about the freezing behavior of Etosha’s six-ton bulls that reminded her of the

tiny insects back in her lab. “I did my masters thesis on seismic communication in

planthoppers,” she says. “I’d put a male planthopper on a stem and playback a female

call, and the male would do the same thing the elephants were doing: He would freeze,

then press down on his legs, go forward a little bit, then freeze again. It was just so

fascinating to me, and it’s what got me to think, maybe there’s something else going on

other than acoustic communication.”

F

Scientists have determined that an elephant’s ability to communicate over long

distances is essential for its survival, particularly in a place like Etosha, where more than

2,400 savanna elephants range over an area larger than New Jersey. The difficulty of

finding a mate in this vast wilderness is compounded by elephant reproductive biology.

Females breed only when in estrus – a period of sexual arousal that occurs every two

years and lasts just a few days. “Females in estrus make these very low, long calls that

bulls home in on, because it’s such a rare event,” O’Connell-Rodwell says. These

powerful estrus calls carry more than two miles in the air and maybe accompanied by

long-distance seismic signals, she adds. Breeding herds also use low-frequency

vocalizations to warn of predators. Adult bulls and cows have no enemies, except for

humans, but young elephants are susceptible to attacks by lions and hyenas. When a

predator appears, older members of the herd emit intense warning calls that prompt the

rest of the herd to clump together for protection, then flee. In 1994, O’Connell-Rodwell

recorded the dramatic cries of a breeding herd threatened by lions at Mushara. “The

elephants got really scared, and the matriarch made these very powerful warning calls,

and then the herd took off screaming and trumpeting,” she recalls. “Since then, every

time we’ve played that particular call at the water hole, we get the same response – the

elephants take off.”

G

Reacting to a warning call played in the air is one thing, but could the elephants detect

calls transmitted only through the ground? To find out, the research team in 2002

devised an experiment using electronic equipment that allowed them to send signals

through the ground at Mushara. The results of our 2002 study showed us that elephants

do indeed detect warning calls played through the ground,” O’Connell-Rodwell

observes. “We expected them to clump up into tight groups and leave the area, and

that’s in fact what they did. But since we only played back one type of call, we couldn’t

really say whether they were interpreting it correctly. Maybe they thought it was a

vehicle or something strange instead of a predator warning.”

H

An experiment last year was designed to solve that problem by using three different

recordings – the 1994 warning call from Mushara, an anti-predator call recorded by

scientist Joyce Poole in Kenya and an artificial warble tone. Although still analyzing data

from this experiment, O’Connell-Rodwell is able to make a few preliminary

observations: “The data I’ve seen so far suggest that the elephants were responding as I

had expected. When the ’94 warning call was played back, they tended to clump together

and leave the water hole sooner. But what’s really interesting is that the unfamiliar antipredator

call from Kenya also caused them to clump up, get nervous and aggressively

rumble – but they didn’t necessarily leave. I didn’t think it was going to be that clear

cut.”

 

Questions 14-17

Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage

Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the Reading Passage for each

answer.

Write your answers in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet.

Questions 18-24

Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage.

Using NO MORE THREE WORDS OR A NUMBER from the Reading Passage for

each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 18-24 on your answer sheet.

How the elephants sense these sound vibrations is still unknown, but O’Connell-

Rodwell, a fresh graduate in entomology at the University of Hawaii, proposes that the elephants are “listening” with their 18………………….., by two kinds of nerve endings – that responds to vibrations with both 19………………….. frequency and slightly higher frequencies. O’Connell-Rodwell work is at the combination of geophysics, neurophysiology and 20…………………….,” and it also was the first to indicate that a large land animal also is sending and receiving 21……………………., O’Connell-Rodwell noticed the freezing behavior by putting a male planthopper communicative approach other than 22……………………….” Scientists have determined that an elephant’s ability to communicate over long distances is essential, especially, when elephant herds are finding a 23…………………….., or are warning of predators. Finally, the results of our 2002 study showed us that elephants can detect warning calls played through the 24……………………..”

 

Questions 25-26

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

Write your answers in boxes 25-26 on your answer sheet.

25 According to the passage, it is determined that an elephant need to communicate

over long distances for its survival

A When a threatening predator appears.

B When young elephants meet humans.

C When older members of the herd want to flee from the group.

D When a male elephant is in estrus.

26 What is the author’s attitude toward the experiment by using three different

recordings in the paragraph:

A the outcome is definitely out of the original expectation

B the data cannot be very clearly obtained

C the result can be somewhat undecided or inaccurate

D the result can be unfamiliar to the public